-NRLF 


170    flDM 


•          IV  Jy  OF  THE 

"  f  ttwewtg  <rf 


Name  of  Book  and  Volume, 


Received...  ..187 


University  of  California. 


THE  MEDICAL  LIBRARY 


V.   -i .    i •'(  >  r  i;  r;  i :  A  i '  i  >.    M  .   i  > . 

Of  San    Frnncisco. 

PEESEFTED  BY  MES.  AND  MISS  FOUEGEAUD, 
//:/;/,•  r  i  KY.  /.V;.T. 

BiOLOGY 

LIBRARY 


HINTS 


HEALTH  IN  ARMIES, 


FOR  THE  USE  OF 


VOLUNTEER   OFFICERS. 


BY 


JOHN  ORDRONAUX,  M.  D., 
«( 

PROFESSOR    OF    MEDICAL  JURISPRUDENCE    IN    COLUMBIA    COLLEGE, 
NEW    YORK. 


SECOND  EDITION",    WITH  ADDITIONS. 


NEW  YORK: 

D.  YAK  NOSTRAOT),   192  BROADWAY. 
1863. 


07 


BIOLOGY 
LIBRARY 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1863, 

BY  D.  VAN  NOSTKAND, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the 
Southern  District  of  New  York. 


O.  A.  ALVOED,  PKINTKB. 


TO 

DR.   JOHN  H.  GRISCOM, 

AS  A  TESTIMONIAL  OF  BB8PECT 

FOE  HIS  LIFE-LONG  DEVOTION,   AND  VALUABLE  COXTEIBUTIONS 

TO   THB 

SCIENCE  OF  PUBLIC  HYGIENE. 


PREFACE. 

THE  Preservation  of  Health  in  Armies,  is  everywhere 
a  subject  of  recognized  importance.  So  much,  in  fact,  de- 
pends upon  it,  that  precautionary  measures  in  this  behalf 
can  never  be  exaggerated.  All  that  can  be  done,  should 
be  done  to  protect  troops  against  preventable  disease. 

It  seems  to  have  been  formerly  believed,  that  the  pres- 
ence of  a  Surgeon  in  each  regiment  was  all  sufficient  for 
this  purpose ;  and  that  officers  and  men  could  go  their 
way  free  from  any  responsibility  or  apprehension  on  that 
score.  But  experience  has  proved  that  the  preservation 
of  health,  in  either  one  man,  or  many,  is  not  purely  ob- 
jective with  Surgeons.  Too  much,  in  this  particular,  is 
expected  from  them,  and  too  little  is  done  by  officers  to 
cooperate  with  them.  Armies,  like  patients,  must  act  in 
concert  with  their  medical  advisers,  and  make  the  matter 
of  health  subjective  as  well  as  objective.  Officers  and 
men  need  an  insight  into  the  general  principles  of  hy- 
giene, in  order  to  be  able  to  assist,  themselves,  in  further- 
ing prophylactic  measures. 

To  supply  them  with  the  requisite  amount  of  infor- 
mation, the  accompanying  popular  manual  has  therefore 


0  PKEFACE. 

been  prepared.  In  this,  nothing  like  a  formal  treatise  or 
text-book  has  been  attempted.  Its  brevity,  its  omission 
of  all  scientific  discussion,  and  of  many  statistical  tables, 
will  sufficiently  indicate  that  the  mission  it  is  designed  to 
perform  is  one  eminently  suggestive,  and  not  in  any  sense 
authoritative.  To  "  help,  rather  than  to  hinder,1'  is  the 
maxim  which  has  guided  me  in  its  compilation ;  and  de- 
siring more  especially  to  make  this  little  "  hornbook  "  of 
use  to  military  officers  and  soldiers,  rather  than  to  Sur- 
geons who  possess  such  great  textual  authorities  as  Ham- 
ilton, Gross,  Hennen,  Larrey,  and  Boudin — I  have  conse- 
quently avoided  as  much  as  possible  the  terminology  of 
medical  science,  as  well  as  the  discussion  of  medical  prin- 
ciples. 

Trusting  that  these  desultory  thoughts,  which  have 
thus  crystallized  themselves  into  the  form  of  "Hints," 
may  be  productive  of  some  measure  of  good,  not  only  in 
provoking  greater  watchfulness  over  preventable  disease  ; 
but  also  by  stimulating  other  minds  to  worthier  efforts  in 
the  cause  of  Military  Hygiene,  I  now  commit  them  to  the 
hands  of  my  countrymen,  asking  only  to  be  permitted  to 
remind  them,  that  "  Good  fortune  ever  fights  on  the  side 
of  prudence." 


J.  O. 

rork,  I 
May  23,  1861. 


ROSLTN,  near  !N"ew  York,  ) 


PREFACE  TO  SECOND  EDITION. 

THE  first  edition  of  this  work  being  now  exhausted, 
and  the  necessity  which  called  for  its  compilation  still 
continuing,  a  second  edition  has  been  prepared,  contain- 
ing some  alterations  and  much  new  matter.  And  not 
wishing  to  depart  from  the  original  intent  of  the  work, 
which  is  a  popular  synopsis  of  the  leading  principles 
of  Military  Hygiene,  as  designed  for  laymen  rather  than 
surgeons,  I  have  accordingly  discussed  and  developed 
these  additional  topics  under  the  same  light,  and  in  the 
same  language  as  heretofore,  leaving  the  physiognomy 
of  the  volume  still  unchanged,  and  simply  that  of  a 

manual  of  Hints  on  Health  in  Armies. 

J.  0. 

EOSLYN,  near  New  York,  July,  1663. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

I. — ON  ARMIES,          .  .  .  .  .9 

II. — ON  THE  MEDICAL  EXAMINATION  OF  RECRUITS,         17 
III. — ON  THE  EDUCATION  OF  RECRUITS,       .  .  22 

IY. — ON  THE   CONSTRUCTION  AND   HYGIENE   OF    BAR- 
RACKS, .  .  .  .  .36 
Y. — ON  THE  MARCH,          ....          41 
YI.— ON  THE  CAMP,      .            .            .            .             .52 
YIL — ON  THE  FOOD  OF  SOLDIERS,  AND   EDUCATION   OF 

COOKS,     .....          61 
VIII. — ON  THE  CLOTHING,  .  .  .  .76 

IX. — ON  THE  PREVENTION  OF  DISEASE  IN  GENERAL, 
AND  THE  INDIVIDUAL  PRESERVATION  OF 
HEALTH,  .  .  .  .82 

X.— ON  HOSPITALS,          .  .  .  .105 

APPENDIX. — FOOD. — CULINARY  FORMULAS. — ALIMENT- 
ARY TABLES. — HYGIENE  OF  BARRACKS. — 
CLOTHING. — CAMPING-.  —  SHELTER-TENTS 
AND  CLOAKS  .  115 


HINTS 

ON     THE 

HEALTH    OF    ARMIES. 

CHAPTER  I. 

ON  ARMIES. 

• 

IT  may  be  stated  as  a  fundamental  maxim  in  the 
science  of  warfare,  that  a  state  of  perfect  bodily  health 
is  indispensable  to  the  successful  discharge  of  a  soldier's 
duties.  Whatever  influence  (whether  of  soil,  climate, 
diet,  or  discipline)  interrupts  this  physical  condition, 
disqualifies  him  to  that  extent  for  active  usefulness. 
Armies  being  aggregations  of  individuals,  each  con- 
tributing something  towards  the  strength,  support, 
and  moral  influence  of  the  general  mass,  it  follows 
that  the  withdrawal  of  any  units  from  this  sum  is 
pro  tanto  a  diminution  of  the  effectiveness  of  the 
whole.  And  worse  than  this,  the  weak  and  sick,  in 
proportion  as  their  numbers  increase,  demoralize  the 
healthy,  as  well  by  the  spectacle  of  their  infirmities 
as  by  the  increased  duties,  responsibilities,  and  ap- 
prehensions for  the  future  which  must  inevitably  fall 


10  ON   AEMIES. 

upon  them.  A  sick  army  is  al ways  a  demoralized 
force.  Men,  whose  organic  functions  are  either  inter- 
rupted or  vitiated  by  disease,  can  not  perform  their 
duties  as  before.  They  may  still  have  courage,  but 
courage  in  such  cases  becomes  simply  a  spasm,  and 
is  lacking  in  all  qualities  of  endurance.  The  first 
duty  of  a  skilful  commander  is,  therefore,  to  preserve 
the  health  of  his  troops ;  for  their  health  like  their  am- 
munition is  the  instrument  with  which  they  can  alone 
hope  to  conquer. 

It  seems  to  be  hardly  known  outside  of  armies 
that  the  proportion  of  their  mortality,  under  the  most 
favorable  circumstances,  is  twice  that  of  civil  life,  al- 
though in  this  latter  so  many  patent  causes  of  disease 
manifest  themselves  as  would  make  us  infer  differ- 
ently. Dr.  Farr,  from  observations  made  on  the 
British  army,  presents  us  with  the  following  fearful 
statistics : 

KBLATION  OP  MORTALITY.  Deaths  annually  to 

1,000  living. 
r  AGES.  OCCUPATION.  EATIO. 

20  to  25  {  Chilians 8'4 

(  Soldiers,    ....       17-0 

25  to  30  |  Civilians»      •     •     -     •      9'2 
(  Soldiers,    ....       18«3 

30  to  35  I  Civilians>      ....    10-2 
(  Soldiers,    ....       18'4 

35  to  40  |  Civilians,      •     •     •     •    n'6 
(  Soldiers,    ....       19'2 

That  this  mortality  is  reducible  to  a  ratio  at  least 
equal  to  that  of  civil  life,  is  not  to  be  questioned ;  for 


ON   AEMIES.  11 

we  see  it  already  so  foreshadowed  in  the  less  per- 
centage observable  among  old  soldiers,  who,  without 
any  additional  safeguards  to  health  beyond  those  pos- 
sessed by  their  younger  brethren,  are  yet  from  habit 
and  induration  protected  from  those  lurking  morbific 
agencies  wrhich  decimate  the  latter ;  and  if  so  reducible, 
then  it  is  the  duty  of  the  state  to  prevent  it,  because 
preventable  mortality  is  criminal  mortality,  and  the 
responsibility  for  its  occurrence  rests  at  the  door  of 
those  through  whose  negligence  it  has  happened. 

*  It  is  to  a  want  of  observance  of  simple  hygienic 
rules,  that  we  must  charge  this  needless  waste  of 
human  life ;  for  it  is  not  sufficient  to  say  that  the 
inevitable  duties  of  a  soldier — guard-mounting,  drills, 
fatiguing  marches,  changes  of  climate,  diet,  and  dwell- 
ing— necessitate  so  high  a  ratio  of  mortality.  Expe- 
rience, in  fact,  proves  the  contrary.  Hunters  and 
trappers  are  proverbially  healthy  men,  although  ex- 
posed to  as  great  fatigues,  hardship,  extremes  of 
weather,  and  vicissitudes*  of  diet  as  soldiers.  The 
cause  of  this  excessive  mortality  is  plainly  due  to 
something  different  from  any  one  of  the  above  as- 
signed reasons,  or  even  all  of  them  combined. 

Applied  either  separately  or  jointly  to  any  one 
individual,  they  do  not,  as  in  the  case  of  hunters, 
justify  us  in  considering  them  as  efficient  causes.  We 
must  look,  therefore,  for  another  and  more  predispos- 
ing agency  in  the  production  of  disease.  And  that 
agency  we  shall  find  in  the  gregarious  mode  of  living, 
and  the  general  negligence  of  preventive  measures 
which  prevails  in  most  armies.  The  former  is  un- 


12         „  OX   AEMIE8. 

doubtedly  inevitable,  but  it  need  not  be  accom- 
panied by  a  total  disregard  of  those  rules  of  health 
which  are  found  indispensable  to  the  well-being  of  all 
large  communities.  Men  congregated  in  masses,  and 
in  small  areas — overtasked,  uncleanly,  and  improp- 
erly fed,  whether  they  be  soldiers  or  artisans,  are 
subjected  to  precisely  the  same  laws  of  health  and  dis- 
ease, and  the  violation  of  those  laws  always  entails 
the  same  fearful  penalty  upon  all. 

Military  science  has  made  stupendous  progress 
within  the  present  generation.  In  the  improvement 
of  arms  in  particular,  it  has  signally  triumphed.  So 
terrible  is  its  enginery  now,  that  the  possibility  of 
any  defence  against  its  effects  is  almost  abandoned. 
The  art  of  offence  has  culminated.  Before  the  de- 
structive missiles  hurled  from  the  months  of  rifled 
cannon,  neither  wood  nor  stone  can  stand ;  and  the 
reduction  of  any  fortress  against  which  such  ordnance 
is  brought  to  bear  is  simply  a  question  of  time.  But 
with  all  the  glory  which  tne  art  of  warfare  has  ac- 
quired, and  with  all  the  good  it  may  have  accom- 
plished in  equalizing  disparity  of  forces,  it  will  yet 
have  failed  in  the  first  of  all  essentials,  and  left  an 
unrelenting  foe  in  its  rear,  so  long  as  it  ignores  the 
necessity  of  incorporating  within  its  principles  a  well- 
digested  system  of  hygiene.  Without  this,  the  direst 
enemy  will  be  found  always  in  the  very  midst  of  the 
largest  assemblage  of  men ;  striking  right  and  left, 
at  night  and  in  the  day,  the  "  lean,  cold  hand  of  dis- 
ease "  will  dismember  an  army  more  certainly  than 
those  who,  heralded  by  drum  and  bugle,  and  visible 


ON   AEMIES.  13 

to  sight,  fall  on  it  only  with  bayonet  and  sabre-stroke. 
It  was  Frederic  the  Great  who  used  to  remark  with 
a  sigh,  that  fever  annually  robbed  him  of  more  men 
than  seven  pitched  battles.  And  yet,  long  as  this 
startling  truth,  has  been  known,  and  fearfully  as  it 
has  illustrated  itself  in  every  army  since  the  day 
when  it  was  first  uttered,  no  adequate  measures  have 
yet  been  taken  in  many  countries  to  prevent  the  evil 
which  thus  decimates  their  armies.  Overcrowded, 
ill-ventilated  barracks,  small,  foul  tents,  indifferent 
provisions,  badly  organized  hospitals,  will  continue 
to  do  their  work  of  silent  destruction,  until  med- 
ical men  are  allowed  some  power  and  discretion  in 
the  housing,  feeding,  and  superintendence  of  troops. 
When  this  shall  be  done,  we  can  hope  for  a  marked 
diminution  in  the  ratio  of  their  mortality  ;  but  until 
it  is  done,  we  must  expect  to  see  the  flower  of  every 
army  cut  off,  and  the  state  shorn  of  its  most  useful 
members  in  times  of  direst  necessity. 

It  is  upon  officers,  therefore,  of  every  grade,  that 
rests  the  responsibility  of  preserving  the  health  of 
their  men.  From  the  highest  to  the  humblest  each 
has  his  portion  to  command,  and  inasmuch  as  any 
wanton,  unjustifiable  waste  of  life,  either  in  an  assault 
or  on  a  battle-field,  exposes  an  officer  to  a  court-mar- 
tial, so  with  the  same  propriety,  and  by  parity  of 
reason,  should  any  negligence  of  sanitary  rules,  re- 
sulting in  unnecessary  loss  of  life,  expose  him  to  the 
same  penalties.  With  a  sufficient  medical  staff  at  his 
elbow,  it  is  idle  for  the  officer  to  attempt  to  shield 
himself  behind  the  plea  of  ignorance,  or  those  petri- 


M  ON   AKMIES. 

fied  formalities  which  are  the  heir-looms  of  inflated 
officialism.  In  the  presence  of  elementary  forces 
hastening  to  develop  disease,  red-tape  and  official  ru- 
brics must  vanish  ;  hygiene,  without  waiting  for  the 
fecial  college  to  declare  war,  must  be  allowed  to  at- 
tack the  enemy  and  to  demolish  him,  ere  he  has  as- 
sembled his  forces  •,  after  which  "  general  orders  "  can 
again  march  on  in  their  old  conventional  ways. 

A  chief  source  of  disturbance  to  the  health  of  all 
new  levies  is  found  in  the  suddenness  with  which  they 
are  translated  from  the  comforts  of  home,  and  the 
moderate,  generally  self-imposed  and  self-regulated 
duties  of  civil  life,  to  the  extremes  of  diet,  (quantity 
and  quality,)  fatigue  and  exposure,  incidental  to  active 
operations  in  the  field.  This  suddenness  of  transition 
is  always  depressing  to  the  nervous  energies  in  any 
contingency,  either  of  civil  or  military  life,  but  par- 
ticularly, and  more  dangerously  so  in  the  latter,  be- 
cause of  the  necessary  inability  of  obtaining  periods 
of  intervening  rest  during  which  nature  can  gradually 
recover  herself  from  the  direct  and  reflex  shocks  under 
whose  influence  she  is  laboring.*  Placed  in  this  po- 

*  The  statistics  of  the  French  army  show  the  following  to  be 
the  average  proportion  of  its  mortality: — 

LOSS  IN  EACH  1,000. 

During  the  1st  year  of  service,    .        .        .        .  7'5 

"        "    2d      "  "  6-5 

"    3d      "  «          ....  5-2 

"    4th     «  "       .  4-3 

"        "    5th     "  "  ....  3' 

"    6th     "  "       ....  2' 

"        "    7th     "  "          ....  2- 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  first  year  is  the  most  fatal  to  soldiers. 


ON   AKMIES.  15 

sition,  the  soldier  may  be  considered  as  directly  in- 
viting an  attack  of  disease ;  nor  will  it  be  slow  to 
appear,  or  fail  to  assume  an  epidemic  character  when 
corresponding  in  type  to  the  constitutional  tenden- 
cies of  the  season. 

Now,  the  best  protection  to  health  is  the  posses- 
sion of  health,  which  like  a  shield  protects  us  against 
morbific  influences  only  so  long  as  we  preserve  it 
entire.  Other  things  being  equal,  in  any  exposure 
to  the  sources  of  disease  a  man  in  vigorous  health 
will  longest  endure,  while  those  of  inferior  physical 
tone  soonest  succumb.  Hence,  it  becomes,  in  an 
economical  point  of  view  a  matter  of  the  gravest  im- 
portance to  the  state,  to  see  that  its  armies  are  formed 
out  of  the  most  able-bodied  of  its  adult  population. 
The  soldier  must  be  healthy  at  the  start,  if  he  would 
enter  the  service  with  any  hope  of  being  useful  to  his 
country,  or  to  acquire  distinction  for  himself.  Sta- 
tistics show  that  disease  is  nearly  four  times  *  more 
formidable  to  armies  than  bullets,  and  the  weak  are 
very  sure  to  fall  first  beneath  the  shafts  of  this  un- 
erring marksman.  This  being  the  case,  science  is 
called  upon  to  provide  means  adequate  to  interrupt- 
ing all  preventable  diseases  in  the  soldier  when  actu- 
ally in  the  service,  as  also  to  sift  out  from  among 
recruits  all  those  whose  physical  constitution  is  per- 

*  The  mortality  tables  in  the  British  army  in  the  Crimea  show 
that  in  the  first  five  months  (from  Sept.  6,  1854,  to  Feb.  5,"  1855) 
it  lost  at  the  rate  of  391  per  thousand  by  disease,  and  only  108  by 
wounds.  The  French,  in  the  last  six  months  of  the  campaign,  had 
of  killed  and  wounded  21,937  to  101,128  sick  with  various  diseases. 


16  ON   AKMIES. 

manently  defective.  We  must  have  healthy,  well- 
knit  men  for  recruits  in  order  to  make  strong  and 
resolute  soldiers,  and  we  must  have  strong  and  res- 
olute soldiers  in  order  to  form  invincible  armies. 

It  will  be  perceived  from  these  observations,  that 
a  well  ordained  and  enforced  system  of  hygiene  is 
indispensable  to  the  maintenance  of  a  healthy  arm^ 
and  in  order  that  such  a  system  may  work  to  its 
greatest  advantage,  not  only  the  surgeons  who  plan 
and  direct  its  details,  but,  and  as  far  as  can  be  intel- 
ligible to  non-medical  men,  all  officers  should  know 
enough  of  its  outlines  to  enable  them  the  better  to 
cooperate  with  their  medical  advisers.* 

The  first  step  in  the  formation  of  an  army  is  the 
selection  of  young  and  able-bodied  recruits.  And  for 
the  purpose  of  securing  these,  a  thorough  medical  ex- 
amination of  each  candidate  should  be  made.  This 
examination  must  be  conducted  by  the  medical  in- 
spector in  person,  assisted  by  a  non-commissioned 
officer,  and  always  by  daylight. 

*  The  opposition  to  sanitary  reforms,  which  is  encountered 
not  solely  among  the  ignorant  poor,  but  too  often  among  educated 
laymen,  leads  to  the  belief  that  the  cause  of  antagonism  is  similar 
in  both  classes,  and  resides  in  that  ignorance  of  the  powers  of 
hygiene,  which  accepts  disease  as  a  fate,  and  consequently  scoffs 
at  those  who  endeavor  to  avert  its  shafts.  When  men  can  be 
made  to  believe  that  health  is  our  natural  state,  and  that  God  has 
given  us  means  for  preserving  it  in  the  very  elements  around  us, 
they  will  no  longer  hesitate  as  to  the  line  of  their  duty,  but  will 
zealously  cooperate  in  all  efforts  to  prevent  disease. 


CHAPTER  II. 

GENERAL  RULES  FOR  THE  EXAMINATION  OF 
RECRUITS. 

THE  surgeon,  having  first  satisfied  himself  that 
the  candidate  is  within  the  prescribed  age,  (20  to  45,) 
will  order  him  to  be  stripped  naked,  and  placed  with 
his  back  to  the  light. 

GENERAL  ANATOMICAL  FEATURES. — Placing  him- 
self at  a  convenient  distance  he  will  first  scan  the 
anatomical  proportions,  or  general  conformation  of 
body,  shape  of  the  head,  chest,  abdomen,  and  limbs 
of  the  recruit,  viewing  him  in  front,  rear,  and  side- 
wrise ;  after  which  he  will  command  him  to  march 
forward  and  backward,  cause  him  to  bend  forward, 
jump,  kneel,  sit  and  rise  rapidly,  all  the  while  notic- 
ing whether  there  be  free  and  unembarrassed  motion 
of  the  large  joints  and  muscles. 

FIRST  OBSERVATION. — The  surgeon  will  now  pro- 
ceed to  a  particular  examination  of  the  head,  ears,  the 
hearing,  eyes,  and  teeth.  The  eyes,  and  their  power 
of  sight  require  the  closest  scrutiny.  For  this  pur- 
pose the  recruit  should  be  tested  with  suitable  objects 


18  GENERAL   RULES   FOR  THE 

at  various  distances.  Each  eye  should  be  separately 
tested  as  by  taking  aim,  &c. ;  tests  for  color  blind- 
ness  should  also  be  applied. 

SECOND  OBSERVATION. — Examinations  must  then 
be  made  of  the  neck,  chest,  (external  and  by  ausculta- 
tion,) back  and  loins,  including  the  arms,  their  flexor 
and  extensor  muscles,  the  hands  and  all  the  digital 
muscles,  and  particularly  all  the  articulations.  Eve- 
ry finger,  the  wrists,  the  elbow  and  shoulder  joints 
must  be  flexed  and  extended,  separately  and  to- 
gether. 

THIRD  OBSERVATION.— The  abdomen  and  but- 
tocks, the  testicles,  scrotum,  and  inguinal  regions,  the 
penis,  and  anus  must  next  be  inspected. 

FOURTH  OBSERVATION. — The  thighs  and  calves  of 
the  legs,  with  all  their  articulations,  must  be  inspect- 
ed ;  varicose  veins  must  not  be  overlooked. 

FIFTH  OBSERVATION. — The  feet  and  their  shape  ; 
the  toes,  their  joints  and  muscles,  must  be  carefully 
inspected.  Also  the  mode  of  step.  Is  the  recruit 
splay-footed  ?  Do  the  toes  turn  in  or  out  ? 

SIXTH  OBSERVATION. — The  stature  of  the  recruit 
should  now  be  measured,  and  where  there  is  any 
suspicion  of  his  attempt  to  increase  its  appearance, 
he  should  be  measured  supine,  instead  of  erect.  It 
should  be  noticed  also  whether  he  has  had  the  small- 
pox or  been  vaccinated.* 

*  Vaccination,  although  not  insisted  upon  as  a  prerequisite 
to  enlistment,  should  be  performed  upon  all  who  have  not  been 
thus  protected,  as  soon  as  they  reach  a  depot.  The  vesicle  will 
not  prevent  the  use  of  the  arm  in  drilling,  and  is  too  slight  an  in- 


EXAMINATION    OF   KECKUITS.  19 


DISQUALIFYING     DISEASES. 

These  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  viz. :  such 
as  imply  absolute,  and  such  as  imply  relative  incapacity 
for.  military  service. 

CLASS  FIRvST. 

Relating  to  Organic  or  Articular  Degeneration,  General 
Mai-conformation  or  Absence  of  Parts. 

Phthisis,  aneurism  of  large  arteries,  scrofulous  ul- 
cers, voluminous  goitre ;  privation  of  sight  or  hearing ; 
dumbness  ;  permanent  aphonia  ;  loss  of  an  arm,  leg. 
foot,  hand ;  curvature  of  the  long  bones  ;  rickets ; 
anchylosis  ;  paralysis,  or  retraction  of  the  flexor  or 
extensor  muscles  of  a  limb  ;  atrophy ;  obesity ;  ta- 
lipes. 

CLASS  SECOND. 

Relating  to  Particular  Affections  of  the  Head,,  Trunk, 
Limbs,  and.  Skin. 


Extensive  injuries  of  skull,  (depression,  exfolia- 
tion,) giving  rise  to  occasional  giddiness,  drowsiness, 
pains  in  the  head,  and  affections  of  the  intellect ;  loss 
of  right  eye ;  fistula  lachryrnalis,  habitual  diseases 
of  eyes,  ophthalmia,  rheums,  &c. ;  weakness  of  sight ; 
myopia  ;  nyctalopia ;  amblyopia ;  deformity  of  nose, 

convenience  to  be  thought  of  as  against  the  advantages  secured. 
Let  this  duty  to  society  never  be  omitted  by  surgeons. 


20  GENERAL   RULES   FOR   THE 

capable  of  interrupting  freedom  of  respiration  ;  ozoena ; 
caries  and  incurable  polypus ;  incurably  fetid  breath ; 
discharges  from  the  ears ;  loss  of  upper  or  lower  in- 
cisors ;  necrosis  of  jaw  ;  fistulas  of  the  maxillary 
sinuses  or  salivary  glands ;  difficulty  of  deglutition, 
from  paralysis  or  other  incurable  lesion ;  chronic 
affections  of  the  organs  of  hearing,  voice,  or  speech, 
sensiby  impairing  their  use. 

NECK,  CHEST,  ARMS,  HANDS. 

Ulcers,  and  scrofulous  tumors ;  deformity  of 
chest ;  Pott's  disease,  or  any  spinal  curvature  affect- 
ing respiration  or  the  carrying  of  arms  and  wearing 
of  accoutrements  ;  phthisis,  (incipient ;)  chronic  asth- 
ma ;  habitual  haemoptysis  ;  total  loss  of  the  thumb 
or  of  the  fore-finger  of  the  right  hand,  or  two  other 
fingers  of  one  hand,  or  the  mutilation  of  the  last  joints 
of  one  or  several  fingers  of  the  right  hand ;  *  paralysis 
of  either  arm  ;  affections  of  any  muscles  or  joints  in 
the  arm  or  hand  impeding  their  free  motion,  (arthri- 
tis, chronic  rheumatism,)  and  incurable  deformities 
in  any  of  these  parts. 

ABDOMEN. 

Irreducible  hernias  ;  calculus  ;  gravel ;  habitual 
incontinence  or  retention  of  urine ;  fistulas  and  se- 

*  These  deformities  do  not  disqualify  the  recruit  for  service 
absolutely,  as  he  may  still  discharge  the  duties  of  a  miner,  sapper, 
pioneer,  or  artillerist — and  many  others  above  enumerated  would 
still  leave  him  in  a  condition  to  perform  certain  garrison  duties. 
The  disqualifying  diseases  which  we  have  cited,  refer  more  par- 
ticularly to  recruits  designed  for  active  service  in  the  field. 


EXAMINATION   OF   RECRUITS.  21 

vere  diseases  of  the  urinary  passages ;  strangulation 
of  testicle,  sarcocele ;  hydrocele ;  varicocele ;  and 
all  incurable  affections  of  the  scrotum,  testicles,  pe- 
nis, or  spermatic  cord ;  ulcerated  haemorrhoids ; 
fistula  in  ano ;  periodical  hsemorrhoidal  flux ;  habitu- 
al incontinence  of  faeces,  and  prolapsus  ani ;  chronic 
weakness  of  the  loins,  accompanied  by  inveterate 
lumbago. 

LOWER    LIMBS    AND    FEET. 

Large  varices ;  incurable  ulcers ;  affections  of 
muscles  or  joints  impeding  their  free  motion.  Se- 
vere diseases  of  the  bones ;  loss  of  great  toe,  or  two 
toes  of  a  foot ;  incurable  deformities  of  feet. 

SKIN    AND    CONSTITUTIONAL   AFFECTIONS. 

All  contagious  diseases  when  become  chronic  and 
inveterate,  such  as  tinea,  herpes,  psora,  elephantiasis 
and  lepra ;  well-marked  cachexy  of  a  scorbutic  or 
glandular  character ;  debility  and  extreme  emaciation ; 
a  too  diminutive  or  tall  stature  accompanied  by 
weakness,  and  leanness  or  obesity ;  gout  and  sciatica ; 
chronic  rheumatism  impeding  the  free  motion  of  the 
trunk  or  limbs  ;  epilepsy  ;  convulsions  ;  chorea  ; 
general  or  partial  paralysis  ;  imbecility. 

NOTE. — The  surgeon  will,  on  a  printed  blank  fur- 
nished for  this  purpose,  note  the  cause  of  rejection 
of  every  recruit. 


CHAPTEE  III. 

EDUCATION    OF    RECRUITS. 

EECRUITS,  when  assembled  and  about  to  be  drafted 
into  various  corps,  should  first  of  all  things  be  classi- 
fied with  reference  to  such  antecedents  of  trade  or 
vocation,  or  such  bodily  or  mental  capacity  as  can 
impart  to  them  predominant  qualifications  for  the 
different  arms  of  the  service.  By  this  means  much 
time  will  be  gained  which  otherwise  would  have  to 
be  consumed  in  a  species  of  rough  and  hasty  appren- 
ticeship in  these  several  preliminaries  to  military 
usefulness.  This  apprenticeship  is  always  more  or 
less  chafing  to  young  recruits,  who  are  apt  to  suppose 
that  once  enlisted  they  are  fit  to  undertake  all  a  sol- 
dier's duties,  and  who  repudiate  every  idea  of  mechan- 
ical handicraft  as  incompatible  with* a  military  pro- 
fession. Yet  learn  they  must,  and  the  more  nearly 
the  duty  corresponds  to  former  avocations,  the  more 
rapidly  they  will  learn,  and  the  more  easily  and 
cheerfully  they  will  labor.  Time  and  health  will 
thus  both  be  economized. 

The  following  table  will  illustrate  the  subject  by 


EDUCATION    OF    KECKUITS.  23 

furnishing  the  elements  on  which  such  classifications 
should  be  based. 


CLASSIFICATIONS     BASED      ON     ANTECEDENT      QUALIFICA- 
TIONS.* 

Corps.  Adjuvant  qualifications. 

f  Should  have  worked    in    a   furnace  or 
forge,  been    a    blacksmith,  nailsmith, 
Engineer.  J       cartwrigK  carpenter,  joiner,    miner, 
*       mason,   bridge-builder,  cooper,    boat- 
builder,  saddler  or  harness-maker,  and  < 
generally  acquainted  with  tools. 
f  Should  have  been  a  cartwright,  carman, 
Artillery.  <{       or  worked  in  iron  and  wood ;  accus- 
^      tomed  to  ride,  drive,  or  tend  horses. 

{Should  have  been  accustomed  to  riding, 
driving,  or  tending  horses.  Should 
be  tall  and  large-framed. 
{Should  be  lithe,  well-knit,  not  over-tall, 
muscular,  accustomed  to  long  tramps, 
to  hunting,  and  to  the  use  of  fire-arms. 

Infantry  of  j  Same  as  foregoing,  except  being  taller 
the  line.     (      and  larger-framed. 

*  The  dynamometer  is  an  instrument  whose  assistance  should 
be  invoked  in  classifying  men  for  service  in  those  branches  re- 
quiring great  manual  or  renal  strength.  In  selecting  artillerists, 
whether  on  sea  or  land,  sappers  and  miners,  arid  others  of  kindred 
occupations,  its  scale  should  always  be  applied,  in  order  to  de- 
termine the  positive  power  possessed.  We  accordingly  subjoin 


24: 


EDUCATION   OF   RECRUITS. 


In  the  European  service  stature  is  a  prominent 
element  of  classification.  It  is  not  so  yet  with  us. 
Extremes  only  are  avoided. 

As  raw  troops  are  an  unreliable  material  with 
which  to  undertake  a  campaign,  serving  too  often 
only  to  encumber  hospitals  and  to  confuse  the  move- 
ments of  regulars  in  times  of  peril,  it  becomes  of  the 
greatest  importance  to  give  the  recruit  the  benefit  of 
some  probationary  exercises  in  barracks  by  way  of 
weaning  him  from  old  habits,  and  gradually  strength- 
ening and  disciplining  him  for  the  severe  duties  of  the 
field.  As  this-  discipline  involves  a  radical  change  in 
diet,  exercise,  sleep,  and  clothing,  it  is  necessary  that 
it  should  be  conducted  under  the  immediate  direction 

a  table  illustrative  of  the  averages  of  human  strength  as  measured 
by  it,  in  the  French  service. 


RENAL  STRENGTH. 

MANITAl  STRENGTH. 

FH 

g 

1- 

§ 

1 

^ 

*§; 

M 

! 

0) 

6f 

o 

i 

O 

5  § 

*  5 

^ 

•? 

5  § 

r^ 

^3 

be 

o 

M 

fcD 

•3 

fi 

<1 

PH 

P 

& 

P 

< 

^ 

F 

^ 

11 

Myr. 

4.8 

19 

Myr. 
13.2 

11 

Kilo. 
29.2 

10.7 

9  9 

19 

Kilo. 
79  4 

35  4 

35.0 

12 

5.1 

20 

13.8 

12 

83.6 

13.9 

11.7 

20 

84  3 

39.3 

37.1 

13 

6.9 

21 

14.6 

13 

89.81  16.6 

15  0 

21 

8fi  4 

43.0    38.0 

14 

8.1 

25 

15.6 

14 

47.9 

21.4 

18.8 

25 

88,7 

44.  li  40.0 

15 

8.8 

80 

15.4 

15 

57.1 

27.8    22.6 

SO 

R9  0 

44.7   41.3 

16 

10.2 

40 

12.2 

16 

63.9 

32.3!   26.8 

40 

87.0 

41.  2i  38.3 

17 

12.6 

50  !  10.1 

17 

71.0 

36.2    81.9'.    50 

74.0    36.  4;  33.0 

18 

13.0 

60       9.3 

18 

79.2 

38.6 

35.0 

,  60 

56.0 

30.3:  26.0 

See  Dictionnaire  des  Sciences  Medicales,  art.  Dynamometre. 
The  French  Kilogramme  is  equal  to  2  Ibs.  3  oz.  5  drs.  Avoir- 
dupois. 

The  French  Myriagramme  is  equal  to  ten  Kilogrammes. 


EDUCATION   OF   EECKUITS.  25 

of  a  medical  officer,  in  order  that  the  constitutional 
idiosyncrasies  of  some  may  be  duly  and  gradually 
overcome,  instead  of  being  rudely  shocked  by  an  un- 
relaxing  severity  which  may  tend  to  develop  disease 
otherwise  preventable.  The  medical  officer,  there- 
fore, should  be  allowed  to  grant  dispensations  to  re- 
cruits newly  enlisted,  from  the  performance  of  certain 
duties,  or  in  the  duration  of  their  execution,  until 
satisfied  that  the  recruit  is  able  to  bear  them.  Thus 
guard-mounting  after  the  fatigues  of  the  day  should 
be  regulated  in  duration  according  to  the  ability  of 
the  recruit,  the  season,  and  the  weather  ;  exercise  of 
a  new  kind  to  him  should  be  similarly  conducted,  the 
idea  always  being  to  convert  the  recruit  into  a  soldier 
by  making  every  step  of  the  apprenticeship  a  profit- 
able one  in  health  and  a  stimulus  to  his  ambition,  in- 
stead of  breaking  him  down  by  the  first  week's  dis- 
cipline, and  keeping  him  in  hospital  for  a  month  to 
get  over  it. 

That  exercise  in  the  open  air  invigorates  the 
frame  all  from  experience  know.  By  increasing  the 
activity  of  our  functions,  and  rendering  us  less  sus- 
ceptible to  the  influences  of  weather,  it  enables  us  to 
perform  fatiguing  labors  without  any  ill  consequences, 
and  thus  develops  in  all  a  high  measure  of  muscular 
ability.  But  this  result  is  not  immediately  to  be  at- 
tained, any  more  than  the  growth  of  the  body  can  be 
compelled  beyond  nature's  own  ordained  periods. 
Muscle  like  mind  must  be  gradually  educated,  and  in 
both  undue  tension  or  ill-regulated  effort  only  serves 
to  retard  development.  A  certain  time  is  required 
2 


26  EDUCATION   OF   RECRUITS. 

to  habituate  the  frame  to  continuous  effort  of  even 
the  most  moderate  kind,  and  the  longer  the  period  of 
apprenticeship,  the  more  confirmed  will  be  its  good 
effects.  Among  the  Romans,  military  education  be- 
gan in  extreme  youth.  Gymnastics  and  games  of  all 
kinds  inured  the  citizen  from  early  life  to  the  fatigues 
of  field  exercises.  Hence,  when  he  arrived  at  man's 
estate  he  was  a  perfected  soldier  in  physical  devel- 
opment already. 

But  with  us,  no  preliminary  education  of  the 
muscles  in  youth  prepares  the  recruit  for  the  active 
duties  of  the  soldier.  Fresh  from  the  long-debili- 
tating life  of  the  counting-room,  the  factory,  or  the 
thousand  sedentary  pursuits  of  the  civilian,  he  steps 
into  the  ranks  of  the  army,  and  loads  himself  down 
with  arms  and  baggage  to  make  a  fatiguing  march 
of  many  miles.  Weak  in  his  shoulders,  his  loins,  his 
wrists,  and  his  knees — not  carrying  so  much  weight 
once  in  a  year  as  his  knapsack  amounts  to,  and  hardly 
ever  marching  off  ten  consecutive  miles  at  any  one 
time  or  sleeping  out  of  his  own  bed,  it  is  little  short 
of  cruelty  to  take  such  a  man  into  the  field  and  im- 
pose all  its  unrelenting  hardships  upon  him.  His  life 
is  jeopardized  from  the  very  start  by  his  own  insuffi- 
ciency of  muscular  discipline,  and  he  can  hardly  be 
of  use  to  the  state  although  burning  with  the  ardor 
of  patriotism. 

Let  officers,  then,  remember  that  the  human  ma- 
chine is  capable  of  performing  only  a  very  limited 
amount  of  any  new  duty  at  first,  and  that  if  pushed 
beyond  this,  its  energies  are  exhausted  and  a  typhoid 


EDUCATION   OF   KECKUITS.  27 

state  supervenes.  Dr.  Levy,  one  of  the  surgeons  in 
chief  to  the  French  army,  remarks  that  forced  marches, 
heavy  drills,  and  too  prolonged  exercises  always  ki- 
crease  the  hospital  list ;  and  even  where  the  muscu- 
lar strain  is  not  sufficient  to  produce  acute  disease, 
and  yet  daily  transcends  the  measure  of  individual 
strength  and  organic  repair,  however  slightly,  it 
gradually  and  insidiously  produces  a  state  of  dete- 
rioration and  general  debility. 

In  order  to  avoid  so  disastrous  a  result,  the  rule 
of  exercise  should  be  one  of  gradual  progression.  It 
is  always  better  to  stop  short  of  actual  fatigue.  For 
this  purpose,  recruits  should  be  drilled  with  moder- 
ation at  first.  Twice  daily,  with  intervening  hours 
of  rest,  the  drill  not  extending  beyond  two  hours  at 
each  session,  seems  about  as  much  as  any  new  recruit 
coming  from  sedentary  pursuits  can  endure.  This 
amount  can  be  increased,  of  course,  after  a  few  days' 
practice  with  the  majority  of  men ;  but  there  will  al- 
ways be  some  who  will  lag  under  the  effort,  and  to 
these,  hygiene,  rather  than  severity,  had  better  be 
applied.  Muscular  vigor  is  not  a  fixed  and  definite 
power  in  man.  It  varies  with  the  age,  original  con- 
stitution, diet,  profession,  season,  and  weather.  These 
elements  must  be  fully  considered  and  have  due 
weight  allowed  them,  when  allotting  measures  of  ex- 
ercise and  effort  to  recruits.  By  degrees,  all  may  be 
brought  to  bear  the  amount  of  exercise  required  by 
the  most  laborious  kinds  of  drilling,  but  caution  at 
the  outset  must  be  observed  with  the  younger  re- 
cruits. A  month  is  a  short  time  in  which  to  make  a 


28  EDUCATION   OF   RECRUITS. 

penman,  with  attenuated  wrists  and  fingers,  capable  cf 
twirling  a  musket  or  sword  ;  or  a  tailor  or  shoemaker 
wkh  shrunken  legs  capable  of  marching  fifteen  miles, 
day  after  day,  fully  armed  and  equipped.  Some  may 
attain  to  this  ability  in  that  time,  but  it  is  certain  that 
all  can  not.  The  competent  should  speedily  be  trans- 
ferred  to  their  various  places  in  the  field,  and  the 
tardy  kept  drilling  until  in  like  manner  perfected. 
This  graduation  of  the  former  will  serve  greatly  to 
stimulate  the  latter. 

Another  fact  to  be  borne  in  mind  is,  that  all  ex- 
ercises do  not  produce. the  same  effects  upon  the  sys- 
tem. Some  develop  one  class  of  muscles,  and  some 
another.  Steady,  measured  exercise  which  produces 
a  harmonious  development  of  all  the  muscles,  rather 
than  strong,  violent  efforts  which  develop  only  par- 
ticular parts,  is  what  the  soldier  needs.  In  modern 
times,  it  is  not  athletes  capable  of  bending  the  bow 
of  Ulysses,  or  wielding  the  club  of  Hercules,  that  we 
need,  but  active,  lithe,  symmetrical,  and  indurated 
men.  The  French  zouave  or  chasseur  is  not  a  Her- 
cules in  size  or  even  strength,  but  like  a  combination 
of  steel  and  whalebone,  he  wears  well  under  fatigue, 
and  springs  back  from  it  with  wonderful  recupera- 
tion. 

Most  authorities  in  military  surgery  are  agreed 
in  denouncing  the  enlistment  of  men  under  20  years 
of  age.  Statistics  show  that  enlistments  made  in  vio- 
lation of  this  suggestion  only  serve  to  encumber  the 
hospitals,  without  otherwise  increasing  the  strength 
of  armies.  As  an  illustration  of  the  importance  of 


EDUCATION   OF   RECRUITS.  29 

age,  it  is  only  sufficient  to  state  that,  in  the  French 
campaign  of  1805,  the*  army  marched  some  1,200 

miles  to  reach  the  battle-field  of  Austerlitz,  without 

7 

meeting  with  any  appreciable  sickness  or  loss  in 
numbers.  Its  youngest  soldiers  were  22  years  old, 
and  had  served  two  years.  But  in  the  campaign  of 
1809  the  army  inarched  only  a  short  distance  from 
Germany  into  Austria,  and  yet,  before  reaching  Vi- 
enna, all  its  hospitals  were  filled.  The  majority  of 
its  new  conscripts  were  under  twenty  years  of  age. 
It  was  on  this  occasion  that  Napoleon  wrote  to  the 
legislative  senate  asking  for  a  new  levy,  and  saying  : 
"  /  must  have  grown  men  ;  toys  serve  only  to  encum- 
ber the  hospitals  and  roadsides" 

Kecruits  should  first  be  drilled  in  the  lightest  of 
their  usual  garbs,  (fatigue  dress.)  No  overcoat  or 
knapsacks  should  be  worn  until  fully  accustomed  to 
the  manual  of  arms.  Afterwards  these  impedimenta, 
as  the  Romans  called  baggage,  can  be  put  on  gradually. 
The  drill  over,  the  men  should  be  ordered  to  wash 
their  faces,  hands,  and  arms,  if  the  weather  be  warm, 
otherwise  it  is  not  necessary.  These  precautionary 
measures  will  both  refresh  them,  as  wrell  as  afford 
protection  against  imprudence  in  drinking  cold  water 
when  overheated,  and  in  exposure  to  draughts  of  air. 
It  should  never  be  omitted  in  summer. 

Recruits  should  not  be  exercised  fasting,  nor  in 
the  full  blaze. of  a  noon-day  sun  in  summer,  and  it  is 
well  to  allow  during  the  drill  an  occasional  intermis- 
sion for  a  few  minutes  for  the  purposes  of  rest.  In 
order  to  guard  them  against  the  effects  of  the  ever- 


30  EDUCATION    OF   RECRUITS. 

repeated  imprudence  of  unbuttoning  their  jackets  after 
drilling  to  "  cool  off,"  the  last  part  of  the  exercise 
should  be  reduced  in  vigor,  and  thus  afford  the  cir- 
culation an  opportunity  gradually  to  diminish  its 
rapidity. 

The  new  exercise  of  prolonged  running,  better 
known  as  the  "  gymnastic  step,"  is  one  of  exceeding 
danger  when  performed  with  knapsack  and  accoutre- 
ments. The  very  constrained  condition  of  the  chest, 
particularly  when  a  cross-belt  is  worn,  impedes  free 
respiration ;  the  lungs  are  rapidly  inflated,  but  only 
in  their  upper  portion,  while  the  lower  lobes  re- 
tain too  long  the  air  required  to  keep  them  dilated ; 
whence  follow  an  increasing  engorgement  and  diffi- 
culty of  respiration,  verging  almost  towards  suffoca- 
tion. Great  care  is  consequently  required  in  initiating 
soldiers  into  this  most  trying  of  all  exercises,  for  an 
error  in  excess  here  may  speedily  cause  haemorrhage, 
and  permanent  pulmonary  or  cardiac  mischief.  The 
first  thing  to  be  taught  the  soldier  is  to  harmonize 
the  breathing  with  the  motions  of  the  limbs.  This 
act  once  acquired,  he  can  run,  even  when  burdened, 
with  facility. 

But  there  will  always  be  found  a  large  number 
of  men  who  cannot  run  with  facility.  These  will 
ever  lag  in  such  an  exercise,  and  so  interrupt  the  or- 
der of  the  column.  Where  special  duties  of  running 
devolve  upon  any  corps,  it  would  be  proper  to  recruit 
it  from  among  those  who  are  possessed  of  this  faculty. 
As  a  general  rule,  small,  lithe  men,  with  broad 
shoulders,  run  and  march  best,  and  it  is  also  to  be 


EDUCATION   OF   EECEUITS.  31 

ierved  that,  past  the  ago  of  forty,  few  men  can  fol- 
low this  rapid  step.  Zouaves  and  riflemen,  therefore, 
should  be  formed  out  of  only  young  men. 

Horsemanship  is  another  of  those  exercises  which 
require  gradual  progression.  Although  unquestion- 
ably healthy  for  the  majority  of  men,  there  are  yet 
those  in  whom  ill  consequences  follow  from  its  ex- 
cessive practice.  Hernias,  and  inflammations  of  the 
testicles  often  testify  to  the  effects  of  incessant  jolt- 
ing in  the  saddle,  and  it  is  advisable  for  all  horsemen 
to  protect  themselves  against  these  accidents  by 
wearing  a  suspensory  bandage. 

But  the  best  exercises  for  the  soldier  are  those  in 
which  he  does  not  simply  obey  a  command  mechan- 
ically, but  employs  his  own  mind  and  body  under 
the  varying  impulse  of  each  present  necessity.  Thus 
in  fencing,  broadsword  and  bayonet  exercise,  he  has 
to  exert  his  own  faculties  of  offence  and  defence,  in- 
dependent of  the  command  of  any  superior  ;  and  the 
necessary  extension  of  limbs,  variety  of  attitudes,  and 
rapidity  of  motion  which  it  requires — the  sudden  con- 
traction and  relaxation  of  muscle,  and  the  accelera- 
tion of  respiration  which  it  occasions,  heightens  the 
tone  of  the  whole  system.  The  eyesight  is  quick- 
ened, the  chest  enlarged,  the  joints  strengthened,  the 
body  rendered  supple  and  muscular  so  as  to  secure 
the  best  and  readiest  use  of  all  its  faculties.  No  one, 
who  has  seen  the  almost  miraculous  change  in  the 
port  and  strength  of  the  soldier,  which  can  be 
wrought  by  fencing  and  the  bayonet  exercise,  will 


32  EDUCATION   OF  EECEUITS. 

hesitate  to  assign  them  the  first  rank  in  the  hygiene 
of  a  military  education. 

Between  the  hours  of  drill,  the  men  should,  under 
the  guidance  of  their  various  officers,  be  taught  how 
to  clean  and  keep  in  repair  their  arms  ;  how  to  make 
cartridges ;  fill  shells ;  take  apart  and  pack  gun- 
carriages  ;  make  fuzes  gabions  fascines,  &c.  Any 
little  occupation  like  this,  by  keeping  the  mind  ac- 
tive, stimulates  it  to  acquisition  and  raises  the  sol- 
dier's own  self-respect. 

Besides  the  drill  within  the  barrack-yard,  and  as 
part  of  the  same  in  time  consumed,  recruits  should 
be  made  to  perform  daily  marches  in  the  field,  fully 
equipped.  They  should  begin  with  short  distances, 
then  longer  ones,  throwing  out  flanking  parties  and 
advanced  guards,  establishing  pickets,  encamping  and 
striking  tents  while  on  the  march.  The  art  of  throw- 
ing up  intrenchments,  making  and  repelling  feigned 
attacks,  should  also  be  taught,  in  order  to  inspire 
them  with  confidence  and  self-reliance.  These  daily 
marches  varying  in  direction,  length,  and  duties  per- 
formed, would  preserve  the  spirits  as  well  as  the 
health  of  the  recruit,  and  give  him  what  he  so  much 
thirsts  for — a  practical  idea  of  the  contingencies  of 
war. 

In  addition  to  tho  moral  effect  of  keeping  soldiers 
actively  employed,  the  gymnastic  discipline  derived 
from  marching  each  day  in  different  directions — from 
digging,  lifting,  running,  leaping — in  hardening  the 
muscles  and  developing  the  strength  of  the  soldier,  is 
the  very  best  school  in  which  to  perfect  his  attain- 


EDUCATION    OF   RECRUITS.  33 

ments.  Nothing  but  gymnastic  exercises  made  the 
light-armed  Greeks  so  terrible  in  battle ;  and  nothing 
but  similar  exercises  have  made  that  perfection  of 
all  modern  soldiers,  the  French  zouave.  And,  inas- 
much as  these  field  exercises  are  the  very  ones  •which 
the  soldier  is  eventually  brought  to  perform  in  war, 
he  cannot  be  too  well  prepared  for  them  during  the 
period  of  his  military  pupilage. 

Habits  of  cleanliness  should  be  particularly  in- 
sisted upon  wherever  practicable.  Soap,  towels,  and 
brushes  can  always  be  used  in  barracks,  and  every 
morning  each  man  should  be  made  to  wash  face, 
neck,  arms,  and  feet  in  cold  water.  At  roll-call,  each 
corporal  should  report  the  state  of  his  squad  in  this 
particular,  to  the  officer  in  command. 

As  much  of  the  outside  clothing  as  can  be  dis- 
pensed with  should  be  removed  at  night.  This 
should  be  insisted  upon,  and  the  men,  instead  of  one 
blanket,  should  be  furnished  with  two,  to  compensate 
for  the  deficiency  in  covering  thus  created.  In  the 
field,  when  the  soldier  cannot  undress,  one  blanket 
may  be  sufficient,*  but  this  one  should  be  of  the 
firmest  texture  ;  and,  as  a  further  protection  in  wet 
weather,  a  rubber  blanket  should  be  given  him. 

Owing  to  the  porous  nature  of  all  textile  fabrics, 
and  their  retention  of  organic  matter  in  the  form  of 
emanations,  blankets  should  be  daily  aired  and  ex- 

*  The  Government  furnishes  each  man  with  only  one  blanket, 
and  that  often  as  sleasy,  almost,  as  a  bolting-cloth.  This  crimi- 
nal neglect  of  health  should  be  palliated  by  giving  the  soldier  a 
rubber  blanket  in  addition,  thus  keeping  him  dry,  if  uot  warm. 


34:  EDUCATION   OF   BECKUITS. 

posed  to  the  sunlight.  If  the  weather  will  not  admit 
of  its  being  done  out  of  doors,  it  should  be  done  in- 
doors, and  in  rooms  with  open  fire-places  and  lighted 
fires.  At  least  once  a  week,  every  well  man  should 
be  compelled  to  thoroughly  wash  himself  and  change 
his  body  clothing. 

The  proper  ventilation  of  dormitories  at  night, 
and  of  guard-rooms  during  the  day,  must  never  be 
overlooked,  and  recruits  should  be  taught  the  im- 
portance of  appreciating  and  enforcing  rules  for  its 
observance. 

Corporals  should  also  make  an  inspection  of  the 
men  when  in  bed,  to  see  that  they  are  properly  un- 
dressed, that  their  garments  are  dry,  and  that  the 
orders  of  the  medical  officer,  relating  to  the  wearing 
of  particular  articles  of  clothing,  are  strictly  observed. 

Wherever  practicable,  daily  bathing  in  summer 
should  be  permitted  and  advised.  But  it  should  be 
done  under  the  eye  of  an  officer,  the  men  being 
marched  down  to  the  bathing  ground  in  squads,  and 
allowed  to  remain  only  a  few  minutes  (from  5  to  10) 
in  the  water.  This  length  of  time  is  sufficient  for 
all  purposes  of  ablution.  But  no  bathing  should  on 
any  account  be  permitted  immediately  after  meals,  nor 
at  evening.  The  habit  is  a  dangerous  one  in  many 
ways,  and  should  be  discountenanced. 

By  the  various  hygienic  measures  above  enumer- 
ated, when  systematized  and  carried  into  effect,  a 
corps  of  young  recruits  may  be  so  strengthened  and 
hardened  as  to  enable  them,  after  a  month's  sojourn 
in  barracks,  to  take  the  field  with  very  fair  chances  ; 


EDUCATION   OF   RECRUITS.  35 

whereas,  without  such  gradual  breaking  in,  the  new 
volunteer,  passing  suddenly  from  the  counting-room 
to  the  ranks  of  an  army,  is  likely  to  wilt  under  the 
first  day's  march  ;  to  be  sickened  by  the  meagreness 
of  his  new  diet,  and  to  be  found  in  the  hospital  rather 
than  on  the  battle-field  when  the  enemy  makes  his 
appearance. 


CHAPTEE    IV. 

HYGIENE     OF     BARRACKS. 

BARRACKS,  not  being  castles  of  defence  but  simply 
habitations,  should  always  be  constructed  with  par- 
ticular reference  to  hygienic  requirements.  But,  in 
order  to  be  habitations  cf  comfort,  they  must  first  be 
habitations  of  health.  No  false  economy  should  be 
permitted  to  interfere  with  this  most  important  of  all 
considerations.  And  it  should  be  remembered  also 
that  it  is  easier  to  provide  for  it  during  the  construc- 
tion of  an  edifice  than  by  remodelling  it  afterwards. 

The  paramount  necessities  of  all  buildings  des- 
tined for  dwellings,  are  a  free  and  constant  supply 
of  pure  air,  and  a  due  exposure  to  sunlight.*  Both 
these  necessities  are  increased  by  the  number  of  hu- 

*  As  an  illustration  of  the  importance  of  sunlight,  it  is  stated 
that,  in  the  citadel  of  Ghent,  in  1845  and  1846,  those  companies 
which  lodged  in  subterranean  apartments  had  twice  as  many  sick 
as  those  which  lodged  above  ground.  Few  persons  outside  of  the 
medical  profession  really  appreciate  the  deteriorating  influences 
produced  upon  the  human  constitution  by  depriving  it  of  the 
vivifying  stimulus  of  sunlight.  The  very  air  becomes  in  some 
measure  deteriorated  by  its  long  absence.  . 


mai 


HYGIENE   OF   BA3JKACKS.  37 


.an  beings  inhabiting  them  ;  but  the  former,  at  least, 
is  indispensable  from  the  very  start.  Insufficiency  of 
air  and  its  consequent  depravation  is  not,  however, 
one  of  those  active  causes  which  kill  on  the  spot. 
But  it  is  the  more  dangerous,  because  of  the  insidious 
effects  produced  upon  the  constitution,  and  the  in- 
ability to  detect  them  ere  serious  mischief  is  done. 
The  general  alterations  in  the  system  produced  by  it 
manifest  themselves  in  the  form  of  chronic  glandular 
degenerations,  like  scrofula,  phthisis,  &c.,  or  of  such 
contagious  maladies  as  typhus,  variola,  purulent  oph- 
thalmia, and  dysentery.  Statistics  have  long  shown 
the  large  proportion  of  deaths  from  phthisis  and  ty- 
phus obtaining  in  all  armies,  and  if  this  be  so,  then 
what  better  cause  can  be  assigned  for  it,  than  that  of 
overcrowding  and  ill  ventilation  in  barracks,  huts,  and 
tents  1 

Dry,  airy  sites,  with  a  proper  slope  for  drainage, 
and  an  exposure  to  sunlight,  are  the  best  ones  for 
barracks.  They  should  not,  when  erected  in  cities, 
be  placed  in  densely  populated  portions,  or  be  sur- 
rounded by  high  buildings. 

Whatever  the  size  of  the  building  or  material 
of  construction,  the  walls  should  be  thick,  in  order  to 
insure  perfect  dry  ness,  and  windows  of  sufficient  size 
(the  larger  the  better)  should  abound  on  all  sides. 
It  is  better  to  have  the  building  with  as  long  a  front 
as  possible.  If  wings  are  necessary  they  may  be 
added,  but  never  so  as  to  form  a  perfect  square  with 
an  inclosed  court-yard,  as  this  latter  is  in  such  cases 
always  a  nursery  of  dampness. 
3 


38  HYGIENE   OF   BARRACKS. 

All  mess-rooms,  guard-rooms,  and  dormitories 
should  have  an  altitude  of  at  least  15  feet,  be  thor- 
oughly ventilated,  and  be  situated  so  as  to  receive 
the  sunshine  during  some  portion  of  the  day.  The 
walls  and  ceilings  should  be  plastered  and  painted, 
so  as  to  exclude  dampness  and  admit  of  cleansing. 

The  best  size  for  dormitories,  consistent  with 
health,  is  such  as  will  contain  from  12  to  14  beds. 
But  the  number  of  occupants  in  any  room  should  al- 
ways be  so  calculated  as  to  afford  to  each  man  400 
cubic  feet  of  air,  with  ventilation  adequate  to  supply- 
ing him  with  40  cubic  feet  of  fresh  air  per  hour.* 
For  this  purpose,  windows  must  be  partially  opened 
at  night,  and  fully  during  the  day,  whenever  the 
weather  permits. 

The  bedstead  should  be  of  iron,  and  single,  and  the 
bed  should  consist  of  a  thick  straw  pallet  and  pillow. 
Sheets  are  cleanly  and  should  not  be  dispensed  with 
in  barracks.  All  beds  should  be  turned,  and  bed- 
ding aired  daily.  But  when  soldiers  are  preparing 

*  In  illustration  of  the  dangers  which  ever  attend  overcrowd- 
ing, in  even  the  best-regulated  barracks,  may  be  cited  the  facts 
observed  in  the  military  hospital  of  Versailles,  from  1843  to  1847, 
where  an  annual  epidemic  of  typhoid  fever  was  seen  to  prevail 
among  patients  brought  from  the  garrison  of  St.  Cloud.  This 
epidemic  declared  itself  annually  a  few  days  after  the  arrival  of 
the  king  at  the  palace  of  St.  Cloud,  and  disappeared  immediately 
on  his  departure.  Ordinarily  the  garrison  there  consisted  of  from 
400  to  500  men,  but  the  king's  advent  increased  it  to  1,200  !  The 
troops  were  consequently  overcrowded  in  all  their  quarters,  and 
typhoid  fever  invariably  manifested  itself.  This  fact  is  a  signifi- 
cant commentary  upon  the  deleterious  influences  that  always  at- 
tend upon  overcrowded  establishments,  and  will  apply  to  gaols, 
workhouses,  and  pauper  asylums,  as  well  as  to  barracks. 


for 


HYGIENE   OF   BABRACKS.        •  39 


•r  immediate  service  in  the  field,  they  should  be 
gradually  weaned  from  the  use  of  sheets,  and  even  the 
straw  pallet,  and  made  to  rough  it  on  the  floor  in 
their  blankets,  with  knapsacks  for  pillows. 

All  wash-rooms,  mess-rooms,  and  guard-rooms 
should  be  on  the  ground  floor,  and  the  former  should 
be  tiled,  with  a  sloping  floor,  and  a  drain  running 
through  the  centre.  Around  the  wrash-sinks,  wooden 
gratings  should  be  placed  for  the  men  to  stand  on 
while  performing  their  ablutions. 

All  privies,  urinals,  and  cess-pools  should  be  daily 
disinfected  in  the  absence  of  any  stream  of  water 
running  through  them.*  They  should  communicate 
with  a  subterranean  sewer,  and  be  under  semi- weekly 
observation  by  the  medical  officer  of  the  post. 

There  should  be  an  ante-chamber  to  the  guard- 
room, with  a  fire  kept  burning  in  it  during  wet 
weather,  where  men  coming  in  from  out-door  duties 
may  put  off  and  dry  their  wet  outside  garments. 

The  barrack-yard  should  be  planted  with  trees  as 
much  as  practicable.  Evergreens  (pines  in  particular) 
are  preferable  on  the  score  of  health,  as  well  as  room. 

No  copper  or  lead  vessels  should  be  used  in  cook- 
ing, except  when  tinned,  and  their  condition  should 
be  frequently  inspected  by  the  medical  officer  of  the 
post. 

All  floors,  except  those  of  bed-rooms,  should  be 

*  Among  the  cheap  disinfectants  may  be  mentioned  the 
Chloride  and  Sulphate  of  Lime  (Gypsum),  in  powder,  and  Sul- 
phate of  Iron  (Green  Copperas),  in  solution,  and  Sulphuric  and 
Muriatic  Acid  Gas. 


40  •        HYGIENE   OF   BARRACKS. 

daily  scrubbed  in  fine  weather,  as  well  as  swept. 
The  sweeping  must  never  be  omitted  ;  the  scrubbing 
may  be,  in  wet  weather.  Floors  should  be  kept 
painted.  Ceilings  and  walls  should  be  whitewashed 
as  often  as  once  a  month. 

The  men  should  not  be  allowed  to  wear  their 
shoes  to  their  dormitories,  but  should  leave  them  in 
their  lockers  when  they  go  to  bed. 

A  urinal  should  be  fixed  near  the  door  of  each 
dormitory,  and  used  only  at  night. 


CHAPTEE    Y. 

THE     MARCH. 

A  MILITARY  march  is  one  of  the  most  fatiguing  of 
all  exercises  in  walking,  and  in  its  effects  upon  the 
system  must  not  be  judged  of  by  any  similar  exertion 
singly  undertaken  in  civil  life.  It  is  one  thing  to 
walk  alone,  and  as  you  please,  with  as  little  or  as 
much  load  as  you  may  prefer,  with  the  privilege  of 
resting  as  often  and  as  long  as  you  please,  and  of 
going  only  as  far  as  inclination  prompts ;  and  it  is 
quite  another  and  a  different  thing  to  march  in  ranks, 
and  always  in  the  same  place,  keeping  step  with  one 
before  you,  treading  amid  clouds  of  dust,  clad  warm- 
ly, and  heavily  burthened  with  accoutrements,  unable 
to  stop  at  the  first  promptings  of  fatigue,  and  com- 
pelled to  accomplish  a  certain  per  diem  of  locomo- 
tion. Such  is  a  military  march.  Thus  the  \\vuk 
must  keep  up  with  the  strong,  the  man  of  short  ' 
stride  with  the  one  of  long ;  and  the  very  regularity 
of  the  step  does,  when  prolonged,  tend  to  make  it 
wearisome  and  exhausting. 

Another  consideration  when  marching   also  de- 
serves to  be  thought  of,  and  that  is  the  privilege  of 


42  THE   MARCH. 

swinging  the  arm,  which,  as  a  balance  to  that  side  of 
the  body  opposite  the  musket,  becomes  an  imperious 
necessity  for  comfort.  Although  forbidden  on  oc- 
casions like  drills  and  parades  as  being  ungraceful, 
the  restriction  should,  in  kindness  to  the  soldier,  be 
removed  on  the  march.  Wherever  it  is  practicable 
the  men  should  be  allowed  to  march  freely,  and  with- 
out the  restraint  of  well-dressed  ranks.  In  this  way 
the  march  is  relieved  of  much  of  its  harassing  char- 
acter, and  becomes  a  salutary  and  tonifying  exercise. 
The  men  are  more  cheerful,  more  ambitious,  and  ca- 
pable of  a  higher  measure  of  endurance.  The  skill  of 
a  commander  cannot  be  better  shown  than  in  pre- 
serving the  spirits  of  his  troops  while  causing  them 
to  perform  long  marches. 

One  of  the  pre-requisite  conditions  to  all  good 
marching  is  the  possession  of  a  pair  of  good  feet. 
The  feet  in  fact  are  the  battle-charger  of  the  infantry- 
soldier,  and  serve  to  carry  him  through  the  march 
and  the  fray.  It  becomes  important,  therefore,  that  he 
should  keep  them  in  good  order.  For  this  purpose, 
the  pattern  of  all  army  shoes  should  present  us  with 
a  broad  sole  as  the  first  preventive  to  cramping 
the  feet ;  a  stout  single-soled  shoe  made  of  light  kip 
leather,  laced  around  the  ankle,  combines  all  the  ele- 
ments of  lightness  and  durability,  protection  to  the 
foot,  and  support  to  the  ankle,  which  can  be  desired 
in  any  shoe.  Over  such  an  article,  a  gaiter  would 
not  be  needed,  although,  if  possible,  they  should  be 
worn,  and  when  so,  the  shoe  would  not  need  to  reach 
so  high. 


THE   MARCH.  43 

In  the  disposition  of  a  march  certain  hygienic  as 
well  as  strategic  elements  enter.  For  it  is  evident 
that  if  the  character  of  the  march  be  so  imprudently 
designed  as  (by  excess  of  length,  exposure  to  storms, 
roughness  of  country,  and  omissions  of  intervals  of  rest 
and  refreshment)  to  fatigue  and  harass  troops,  a  com- 
mander will  succeed  only  in  breaking  down  his  sol- 
diers, so  that  the  more  he  marches,  and  the  nearer  he 
approaches  the  enemy,  the  less  fit  he  will  be  to  en- 
counter him.  In  an  enemy's  country  it  is  always 
better  to  make  short  marches,  and  to  keep  troops 
fresh,  than  to  attempt  long  ones,  which  only  result 
in  swelling  the  sick  list.  Fatigue  and  exhaustion 
are  as  destructive  to  courage,  as  they  are  to  endur- 
ance, and  when  General  Debility  takes  command  of 
an  army,  the  possession  of  rifled-canrion  and  Minie 
balls  are  of  little  avail  to  it.  Tonicity  of  muscular 
fibre  is  like  dryness  to  powder ;  the  more  there  is 
of  it,  the  greater  the  destructive  power  engendered, 
while  flaccidity  on  the  one  hand  and  dampness  on  the 
other,  render  both  these  ministers  of  war  absolutely 
inert. 

Too  long,  too  rapid,  or  ill-regulated  marches,  are 
ever  apt  to  occasion  sickness,  and  to  provoke  those 
inevitable  results  of  over-fatigue,  complete  prostra- 
tion, and  internal  congestions.  The  fact  is  so  often 
made  manifest  in  the  increase  of  the  hospital  list, 
which  ever  follows  upon  ill-regulated  and  fatiguing 
marches,  that  it  hardly  needs  repetition.  We  find 
in  the  Archives  de  Medecine  Militaire*  the  following 

*  Tome  9,  page  15. 


44  THE   MARCH. 

incident  most  strongly  illustrative  of  the  point  under 
review.  Two  brigades  arrived  at  the  same  depot ;  the 
one  had  made  protracted  marches,  partly  by  night ; 
the  other  short  and  slow  ones,  always  by  day,  and 
here  was  the  result  as  furnished  by  the  hospital- 
record  : 

Marching  ~by  Long  Stages  Partly  by  Night. 

2d  Regiment  had  60  days  of  sickness. 
4th         "  "41      "  " 

6th  (1st  batt'n)     43      " 

Marching  "by  Short  Stages  Always  ~by  Day. 

1st  Regiment  had  32  days  of  sickness. 
6th  (2d  &  3d  bat.)  14     «  " 

12th    Reg't     had  19      " 
3dChass.(foot)"   23      "  " 

Thus  those  who  made  long  marches,  and  partly 
by  night,  lost  twice  as  much  time  by  sickness  as  those 
who  made  short  marches  and  always  by  day,  a  sig- 
nificant commentary  upon  the  hygiene  of  exercise. 

The  hygienic  considerations  that  should  regulate 
a  march  are  those  of  season,  weather,  physical  charac- 
ter of  country,  and  condition  of  troops.  The  same 
length  of  daily  march  which  might  be  accomplished 
in  winter,  could  not  with  safety  be  gone  over  in  sum- 
mer ;  nor  in  a  rain-storm  as  on  a  dry  day  ;  nor  in 
a  flat,  sandy  country,  as  among  hills ;  nor  with 
young  and  raw  troops  as  with  veterans.  The 
great  object  being  not  simply  to  transport  men  a 


THE  MARCH.  45 

certain  distance,  so  much  as  to  present  them  upon 
a  certain  spot  in  fighting  order,  officers  will  see  the 
propriety  of  never  willingly  undertaking  forced 
marches,  as  the  risks  of  breaking  down  new  troops 
are  too  great  to  be  lightly  incurred.  Particularly  is 
this  the  case  in  hot  weather,  when  all  the  disadvan- 
tages in  dress  and  weight,  under  which  the  soldier 
labors,  render  him  doubly  accessible  to  fatigue  and 
disease.*  In  him  the  excess  of  heat  at  the  surface 
generated  by  prolonged  exercise,  finds  no  ready 
means  of  escape  through  his  thick  clothing.  The 
weight  of  the  knapsack,  and  the  constriction  of  the 
chest  caused  by  its  cross-belt,  greatly  impede  the 
function  of  respiration,  and  give  rise  to  acute  dis- 
orders of  its  organs.  Pneumonia,  pleurisy,  bron- 
chitis, &c.,  attest  the  ill  effects  that  flow  from  these 
causes. 

When  marching  under  the  conditions  of  a  high 
temperature,  the  soldier  should  be  allowed  to  unbutton 
his  coat,  and  to  turn  down  his  collar,  the  distances  be- 
tween the  ranks  should  be  widened]-  to  twice  or  even 

*  Asphyxia  supervening  upon  extreme  fatigue,  has  been  fre- 
quently noticed  in  the  French  army  in  Africa,  particularly  during 
the  prevalence  of  the  sirocco.  Even  mania  has  followed  upon 
protracted  marching;  and  in  General  Bugeaud's  expedition  in 
1836,  eleven  suicides  were  recorded. 

t  All  who  have  ever  been  in  a  crowd  on  a  hot  day,  know  how 
suffocating  is  the  atmosphere  created  by  a  body  of  men  close 
together,  and  radiating  about  them  the  corporeal  emanations 
which  always  accompany  even  insensible  perspiration.  But  when 
clothing  becomes  saturated  under  such  circumstances  with  visible 
perspiration,  we  have  here  a  real  human  miasma  developed,  under 
the  combined  influences  of  heat,  moisture,  and  volatilized  animal 


46  THE   MARCH. 

thrice  the  usual  measure,  and  he  should  be  relieved 
of  all  superfluous  baggage ;  or  if  that  cannot  be  done, 
the  distances  marched  should  be  short,*  and  gone 
over  early  in  the  day. 

The  slow  pace  (3  miles  the  hour)  is  the  proper  one 
for  all  ordinary  occasions,  as  infantry  can  then  keep 
up  with  cavalry  :  besides  which  the  march  is  easier 
for  all,  and  there  are  fewer  laggards.  At  the  expira- 
tion of  the  first  hour  a  halt  of  ten  minutes  will  be 
found  of  service. 

At  the  expiration  of  the  second  hour  a  halt  of  fifteen 
minutes  should  be  allowed,  and  the  men  be  permitted 
to  lie  down  if  they  choose,  unsling  knapsacks,  unbut- 
ton coats,  but  not  to  remove  them,  and  take  off  their 
shoes.  Neither  should  they  be  allowed  to  drink  im- 
moderately of  cold  water  from  any  stream  hard  by. 
The  canteens  should  be  filled  before  starting,  and  suffice 
until  the  final  halt  of  the  day  ;  and  in  order  to  keep 
their  contents  cool,  they  should  be  covered  with  a 
piece  of  white  cotton  cloth  kept  constantly  wet.  By 
dipping  the  canteen  in  any  water  during  the  halt,  and 
allowing  a  few  minutes  evaporation  from  the  cloth  to 
occur,  the  contained  water  will  be  found  much  low- 
ered in  temperature.  Another  halt  of  ten  minutes  at 

matter.  Thirteen  inches,  the  space  allowed  between  the  ranks,  is 
not  sufficient  in  hot  weather,  and  on  a  march.  Men  should  never 
be  so  near  as  to  smell  each  other. 

*  All  authorities  are  agreed  that  when  long  journeys  are  to  be 
accomplished,  the  daily  marches  should  be  short.  A  long  one  at 
the  beginning  has  been  known  to  essentially  defeat  the  object  of 
the  journey,  by  breaking  down  a  large  number  of  men,  and  un- 
fitting them  for  active  duty. 


THE   MAECH.  47 

the  expiration  of  the  third  hour  should  take  place  as 
before.  With  the  fourth  hour  of  march,  exclusive  of 
stops,  the  column  will  have  accomplished  from  12  to 
15  miles  according  to  the  step  taken.  Twelve  miles 
is  considered  an  ordinary  day's  march  in  the  British 
army,  and  fifteen  in  the  French.*  Considering  the 
American  constitution  as  being  more  nearly  allied  to 
the  British  than  to  the  French,  we  should  say  that  12 
miles  per  diem  was  the  extent  to  which  any  large 
column  should  be  pushed  during  the  summer  months. 

Should  the  exigencies  of  the  service  require  that 
a  longer  march  be  accomplished,  some  additional  pre- 
cautionary measures  will  be  necessary.  After  having 
marched  the  usual  time  of  four  hours,  the  column 
should  be  halted  for  a  full  hour,  the  men  be  made  to 
take  off  stockings,  to  roll  up  pantaloons,  and  to  wash 
their  faces,  necks,  feet,  and  legs.  After  which  a  ration 
of  biscuit  and  coffee  should  be  served  out.  By  these 
simple  and  ever  accessible  means  the  men  will  be 
sufficiently  refreshed  to  march  an  hour  or  two  longer 
without  much  risk  to  health. 

When  making  a  halt,  the  officer  in  command 
should  avoid  deep,  sandy  cuts,  or  places  where  there 
is  not  a  free  .circulation  of  air.  Open  ground,  some- 
what sheltered  by  trees,  and  near  running  water,  is 
the  better  place ;  but  as  all  these  qualities  are  not 

*  When  it  is  remembered  that  the  soldier  on  reaching  his 
camping  ground  cannot  at  once  rest  himself,  but  must  prepare 
his  lodgment,  procure  wood  and  water,  and  do  an  infinity  of  small 
duties,  not  to  speak  of  guard-mounting,  it  will  be  seen  that  12 
miles  a  day  is  a  sufficient  march  at  any  ordinary  time. 


4:8  THE   MARCH. 

easily  found,  the  officer  will  have  to  exercise  his  own 
judgment  in  all  cases  relating  to  choice  of  localities. 

Young  troops  should,  in  marching,  be  placed  in 
the  van  of  the  main  body.  It  will  be  found  that  they 
do  not  experience  so  much  fatigue  in  leading,  as  in 
following  the  column ;  and  in  case  of  a  skirmish,  they 
behave  better,  and  are  more  self-reliant,  from  the 
consciousness  of  having  older  troops  in  their  rear  to 
support  them.  The  moral  effect  thus  produced  upon 
young  soldiers  exerts  a  direct  and  dynamic  influence 
upon  their  physical  courage  ;  stimulates  them  to  re- 
newed efforts,  enables  them  to  endure  fatigue  much 
better,  and  makes  them  strive  to  win  the  respect  of 
their  older  brethren  in  arms,  by  sharing  in  common 
all  their  labors. 

SEASON  AND  WEATHER. — The  rule  of  marching 
with  reference  to  season  and  weather,  should  be  this, 
viz. :  that  in  summer  the  day's  march  should  be  ac- 
complished before  noon.  The  same  rule  holds  good 
when  marches  must  be  made  in  wet  weather,  as  that 
enables  troops  to  collect  wood  for  fires  during  the 
•afternoon ;  to  provide  shelter  for  the  night,  and  to 
dry  themselves  before  lying  down.  As  a  general 
thing,  however,  troops  should  not  be  marched,  unless 
the  urgency  demands  it,  in  wet  weather.  The  damp- 
ness of  so  much  clothing,  much  of  it  already  saturated 
with  organic  emanations,  the  heat  of  so  many  bodies 
marching  and  perspiring  in  immediate  contact,  and 
the  subsequent  crowding  of  half-a-dozen  wet,  reeking 
men  into  one  tent  with  every  aperture  closed,  present 
all  the  necessary  conditions  for  the  development  of 


THE   MAR(JII.  49 


epidemic  disease.  We  must  not  be  surprised  under 
such  circumstances,  and  when  the  march  is  continued 
for  many  days,  to  meet  with  dysentery  and  typhoid 
fever.  They  are  the  legitimate  offspring  of  such 
morbific  influences. 

CHARACTER  OF  COUNTRY.  —  It  is  easier  to  make 
long  marches  in  a  hilly  than  in  a  level,  sandy  country. 
The  reason  is  obvious.  The  muscles  used  in  walking 
are  not  rested  simply  by  inaction,  but  also  by  variety 
of  action  ;  and  that  variety  is  best  obtained  -by 
changes  in  the  configuration  of  the  ground  over  which 
we  march.  Besides  which,  the  mind  is  more  stimu- 
lated by  the  variety  of  scenery  afforded  it  in  a  hilly 
country.  There  is  no  "  weary  waste  expanding  to 
the  skies,"  around  it,  to  fatigue  the  eye,  and  weary 
the  senses  with  a  dull,  monotonous  sameness.  But, 
on  the  contrary,  every  hill-top  presents  a  new  vista, 
and  stimulates  to  fresh  exertion.  This  stimulation, 
born  of  a  pure,  highly  oxygenated  air,  gives  elasticity 
to  the  spirits,  causes  the  flagging  energies  to  revive, 
and  sends  a  thrill  of  ardor  through  the  soldier's  heart. 
It  was  thus  that  the  view  of  the  plains  of  Italy  from 
the  summits  of  the  Alps  fired  the  hearts  of  Napoleon's 
soldiers,  and  made  them  forget  the  fatigues  of  their 
hard  climbing. 

CONDITION  OF  TROOPS.  —  In  order  to  accomplish  a 
successful  march,  troops  should  be  "  fresh  "  at  the 
start.  A  great  battle,  or  the  execution  of  laborious 
field-works,  should  not  be  immediately  followed  by  a 
march  of  those  who  have  taken  active  parts  in  these 
operations.  A  day's  intervening  rest  and  refresh- 


50  THE   MAECH. 

ment  will  do  much  towards  recruiting  the  energies 
of  soldiers  who  have  thus  exhausted  themselves.  For 
although  it  may  at  times  be  necessary  to  "  push  on  " 
immediately  after  a  battle,  yet  it  will  generally  be 
found  that  this  can  only  be  done  with  impunity  by 
victorious  troops,  buoyed  up  by  the  stimulus  of  high 
spirits.  But  that  great  risk  of  overtasking  men  is 
always  run  in  such  cases,  none  will  pretend  to  deny ; 
and  while  it  may  be  justifiable  in  the  defeated  to  es- 
cape at  any  and  every  hazard  to  health,  the  same  can- 
not be  pleaded  by  the  victorious. 

Troops  should  never  be  marched  fasting.  A  ra- 
tion of  coffee  and  biscuit,  if  time  admits  of  nothing 
else,  should  always  be  served  to  the  men  before 
starting  in  the  morning.  This  is  particularly  neces- 
sary in  malarious  districts,  and  should  never  be 
omitted.  The  French  will  often  make  a  morning 
march  on  nothing  but  bread  and  coffee.  Our  troops 
require  more ;  but  without  this  much  at  least,  they 
should  not  be  made  to  march. 

Convalescents  should  be  spared  as  much  as  pos- 
sible on  the  march.  Walking  is  fatiguing  enough  for 
them.  Their  knapsacks  and  arms  should  be  placed 
with  the  baggage,  and  they  near  it.  In  crossing 
rivers,  every  precaution  should  be  employed  against 
their  being  wetted,  as  this  exposure,  added  to  fatigue, 
would  speedily  return  them  to  the  hospital.  Re- 
freshments should  also  be  administered  to  them  dur- 
ing the  march,  in  order  to  preserve  their  strength ; 
and  at  each  halt  they  should,  if  possible,  be  allowed 
to  lie  down  in  the  baggage-wagons.  Extra  covering 


THE   MARCH.  51 

should  be  furnished  them  at  night,  and  they  should 
never  sleep  without  a  tent.  With  these  precautions 
they  will  be  able  to  follow  the  march,  and  even  be 
strengthened  by  it,  so  as  shortly  to  resume  their 
places  in  the  ranks.  There  is  not  so  much  danger  of 
malingering  among  volunteers  enlisted  for  a  few 
months,  as  among  regulars  enlisted  for  several  years. 
Among  the  former,  the  desire  is  rather  to  push  on, 
than  to  lag  behind.  While  in  the  latter,  military 
ardor  is  apt  to  become  somewhat  abated  by  the  feel- 
ing that  several  years  of  service  as  professional  sol- 
diers still  lies  before  them. 


CHAPTER   VI. 

THE    CAMP. 

IT  is  unnecessary  in  a  hygienic  point  of  view  to 
speak  of  all  the  varieties  of  camps  upon  which  mili- 
tary authorities  dwell.  These  classifications  being 
purely  strategic,  have  no  special  application  to  our 
subject.  We  will  limit  ourselves,  therefore,  to  the 
two  simple  divisions  of  flying  and  intrenched  camps. 

In  the  FLYING  CAMP,  which,  as  its  name  implies,  is 
to  be  occupied  only  for  a  short  period,  and  where  no 
tents  are  to  be  erected,  care  should  be  taken  to  select 
a  spot  combining  as  many  of  the  qualities  of  dryness 
of  soil,  proximity  to  fresh  water,  and  shelter  from 
winds,  as  possible.  These  are  the  three  hygienic  ele- 
ments which  should  govern  officers  in  the  selection 
of  its  site.  But  the  short  time  during  which  the  camp 
is  to  be  occupied,  will  not  require  that  the  same 
stringency  in  hygienic  precautions  should  be  enforced 
as  in  a  permanent  camp.  Its  temporary  character 
relieves  it  from  many  of  those  dangers  of  epidemic 
visitation  which  hover  over  intrenched  camps.  Still, 


THE    CAMP.  53 

from  the  greater  exposure  to  the  weather  in  it,  spo- 
radic cases  of  disease  will  soon  appear,  if  no  preven- 
tive measures  are  employed.  It  is  the  part  of  wisdom, 
then,  to  provide  against  these,  by  hedging  the  troops 
about  with  as  many  safeguards  to  health  as  the  na- 
ture of  their  circumstances  admits  of. 

In  selecting  the  site  of  an  encampment,  all  prox- 
imity to  swamps  should  be  avoided,  unless  some  in- 
tervening rising  ground,  or  a  dense  belt  of  woods  ex- 
ists, to  arrest  the  current  of  miasma  which  constantly 
flows  from  them.  Experience  seems  to  show  that 
exposed  heights,  five  and  six  hundred  feet  to  leeward 
of  swamps,  are  more  susceptible  to  the  influences  of 
their  miasma  than  a  level  or  undulating  plain  half 
that  distance  off.*  Whenever,  therefore,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  occupy  such  places,  fires  should  be  kin- 
dled on  the  windward  side,  or  the  men  should  be 
made  to  wear  overcoats  when  mounting  guard  at 
night.  They  should  not  be  exercised  fasting,  and  a 
more  stimulating  diet  must  be  given  them. 

DRYNESS  OF  SOIL. — This  is  not  simply  essential, 
but  also  indispensable,  to  the  health  of  troops.  Men 
cannot  sleep  nor  even  lie  with  impunity  upon  damp 
ground.  Their  beds,  whether  it  be  earth  or  board, 
must  be  dry,  so  must  their  blankets.  Double  safety 
would  undoubtedly  be  secured  by  an  india-rubber 
blanket,  which  neither  gets  wet,  nor  allo\vs  the 
dampness  of  the  earth  to  penetrate  it.  Hemlock  or 
pine  boughs  make  good  enough  beds ;  but  even  if  no 
contact  of  the  person  with  the  damp  earth  occurs,  the 

*  Dr.  Jackson  "  On  Armies." 


54:  THE    CAMP. 

emanations  from  such  a  soil,  particularly  in  hot 
weather,  cannot  be  otherwise  than  deleterious. 

Wherever  it  is  permissible,  fires  should  be  lighted 
and  kept  burning  all  night  on  the  windward  side  of 
the  camp.  They  serve,  in  some  degree,  to  purify  the 
air,  (Est  in  ipsis  ignibus  medica  vis. — Pliny,)  but, 
more  than  all,  to  temper  it.  In  musquito-breeding 
or  malarious  regions,  they  will  be  found  particularly 
serviceable. 

SHELTER  FROM  WINDS. — This  is  an  important  con- 
sideration in  the  selection  of  a  spot  for  a  flying  camp, 
especially  when  the  troops  have  been  exposed  to  the 
wet  during  the  day,  or  the  weather  be  cold.  Winds 
passing  over  damp  clothing,  rapidly  lower  the  tem- 
perature of  the  surface  of  the  body,  and  dispose  to 
inflammatory  disorders.  It  is  important  to  guard 
against  this  source  of  danger  by  a  natural  shelter,  as 
well  as  by  fires. 

In  the  INTRENCHED  CAMP,  which  is  designed  to  be 
a  more  permanent  habitation  for  troops,  other  and 
stricter  rules  of  hygiene  must  be  enforced.  In  the 
selection  of  its  site,  and  wherever  practicable,  the 
same  considerations  as  to  dryness  of  soil  and  prox- 
imity to  fresh  water  should  obtain.  Providing  the 
soil  be  not  argillaceous,  the  presence  of  some  moisture 
(springiness)  is  no  cause  for  apprehension ;  but  the 
locality  of  the  camp  should  always  be  such  as  to  ad- 
mit of  complete  surface  drainage  either  by  direct 
flowage  or  by  percolation.  The  result  of  all  obser- 
vation shows  that  a  light,  sandy  soil,  bordering  on 
the  banks  of  a  wooded  stream,  affords  the  healthiest 


THE    CAMP.  55 

of  all  camping-grounds;  and  in  selecting  such  a  site, 
the  medical  staff  should  always  be  consulted. 

The  first  hygienic  requirement  in  a  camp,  as  in  a 
city,  is  that  its  population  shall  not  be  overcrowded 
in  its  various  lodging-places.  To  prevent  this,  wher- 
ever tents  are  used,  they  should  be  capacious  enough 
to  afford  each  occupant,  at  the  very  least,  108  cubic 
(6x6x3)  feet  of  air,  with  a  renewal  of  40  cubic  feet 
per  hour.  The  English  "  Bell  "  tent  with  a  diameter 
of  13  ft.  8,  and  an  altitude  of  ten  feet,  affords  to  each 
one  of  its  occupants  146  cubic  feet.  The  Portsmouth 
hut,  which  is  much  larger,  and  affords  room  for  25 
men,  gives  to  each  the  same  amount  (146  feet)  of 
breathing  space.  Yet  large  as  this  seems  to  be,  there 
is  good  reason  to  believe  that  it  is  still  insufficient 
in  stormy  weather,  when  necessity  requires  an  almost 
entire  closing  of  the  tent.  To  obviate  the  risks  to 
health  from  this  practice,  they  should  be  made  with 
only  partial  sides  (drops)  to  be  used  in  slantwise 
rains,  or  fewer  men  should  be  assigned  to  their  occu- 
pancy. Without  some  such  precautions,  tents  are 
apt  to  become  foul  to  a  degree  scarcely  credible,  and 
in  this  way  to  afford  nurseries  for  the  generation  of 
epidemic  diseases.  Authorities  differ  greatly  in  their 
various  estimates  of  the  value  of  tents  as  hygienic 
auxiliaries ;  and  certainly,  without  a  more  rigid  san- 
itary surveillance  than  has  heretofore  been  enforced 
in -camps,  the  evils  directly  traceable  to  them  have 
not  been  unduly  magnified.  But  the  same  might, 
with  equal  justice,  be  said  of  tenant-houses;  an<l  vet 
the  poor  must  be  housed,  even  at  the  expense  of 


56  THE   CAMP. 

health.  We  imagine  the  fault  does  not  so  much  lie 
in  the  tent  itself  as  in  the  mode  in  which  it  is  occu- 
pied, and  the  want  of  due  ventilation  and  the  negli- 
gence in  cleanliness  among  its  occupants.  When 
these  two  objections  are  removed,  we  can  find  noth- 
ing in  the  structure  itself  to  condemn. 

Still,  it  is  an  undoubted  fact  that  the  contact  of 
many  warm  bodies  with  the  hum  id  earth,  as  in  a 
tent,  by  first  raising  the  temperature  of  the  contained 
atmosphere,  and  causing  an  ascent  of  moisture  satur- 
ated with  organic  emanations,  produces  the  best 
conditions  for  the  development  of  disease.  And 
those  diseases,  by  the  very  asthenic  and  typhoid 
types  which  they  assume,  clearly  enough  indicate  the 
sources  of  their  origin.  The  camp  dysenteries  of  the 
Crimea  were  most  generally  of  this  type,  even  as  all 
fevers  become  modified  by  the  medium  in  which  they 
have  been  developed,  independent  of  any  ingenerate 
character  of  their  own.  The  daily  observation  of 
such  facts  as  these,  multiplied  and  reduplicated  in 
the  hospital  records  of  all  armies  in  modern  times, 
should  make  us  blush  with  indignation  at  that  stupid 
apathy  which  has  so  long  permitted  preventible  di- 
sease to  decimate  the  flower  of  every  army. 

The  late  Dr.  Jackson,  surgeon-general  to  the 
British  army,  was  of  opinion  that  tents  were  not  es- 
sential to  health ;  and  certainly  as  formerly  managed, 
they  were  among  its  greatest  enemies.  He  gave  the 
preference  to  huts,  alleging  their  superiority  on  the 
point  of  cleanliness  and  ventilation,  and  even  assert- 
ed that  men  could  do  well  without  either.  We  are 


THE    CAMP.  57 

not  prepared  to  say  as  much  as  that,  believing  as  we 
do  in  the  superiority  of  a  well-ordered  tent  over  all 
other  kinds  of  shelter.  But  for  safety's  sake  it  should 
only  have  partial  sides,  not  close  walls,  a  trench  dug 
completely  around  it  to  >  receive  and  lead  away  the 
rain  ;  and  not  less  than  four  feet  should  intervene  be- 
tween the  stakes  of  each  tent. 

Every  occupied  tent,  at  night,  should  have  a  large 
portion  of  its  doorway,  or  during  a  storm  some 
other  aperture  on  the  leeward  side,  open,  for  pur- 
poses of  ventilation.  The  corporals  of  each  guard  in 
making  their  rounds  should  see  to .  the  enforcement 
of  this  rule,  also  that  the  men  do  not  smoke  in  the 
tent.  It  would  also  be  well,  were  it  possible,  to  in- 
sist upon  the  men's  blankets  being  inspected  at  night 
to  see  that  they  are  not  wet  when  used  as  coverings. 
And  when  the  guard  is  relieved  in  rainy  weather,  and 
before  a  soldier  retires  to  his  quarters  he  should,  if 
he  has  used  his  blanket,  be  given  a  dry  one  in  ex- 
change, in  which  to.  sleep. 

The  floor  of  each  tent  should  be  covered  with  an 
india-rubber,  or  painted  canvas  cloth,  which  should 
form  part  of  the  camp-equipage  just  as  much  as  the 
tent  itself.  In  this  day  of  meridional  civilization,  it 
is  unjustifiable  to  omit  any  thing  which  can  protect 
troops  from  the  risk  of  sleeping  on  damp,  cold 
ground.  Tents  must  have  flo'ors ;  wood  is  cheap, 
but  bulky  to  transport,  and,  besides,  becomes  satur- 
ated with  organic  emanations.  India-rubber,  on  the 
contrary,  is  cheap,  light,  and  always  clean. 

To  each  twenty  men  there  should  be  allowed  a 


58  THE    CAMP. 

night-bucket  with  a  cover,  to  serve  as  a  urinal,  and 
to  be  used  only  at  night.  This  is  cleanlier  than  to 
allow  men  to  ease  themselves  on  the  ground  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  tents,  (as  the  soil  soon  becomes  foul 
and  offensive,)  while,  at  the  same  time,  it  relieves 
them  from  the  necessity  of  going  to  the  privies  at  the 
extreme  rear  of  the  regiment  in  wet  and  stormy 
weather. 

The  regimental  privies  or  sinks  should  be  en- 
circled by  bushes,  and  every  evening  a  portion  of 
the  earth  dug  out  of  them  should  be  thrown  in.  A 
special  privy  should  be  allotted  to  the  dejections  com- 
ing  from  hospital  patients  ;  and  this  should,  when 
much  sickness  prevails,  be  daily  disinfected. 

Every  tent  should  be  thoroughly  aired  daily  ; 
and  all  straw,  hay,  or  other  bedding  contained  in  it 
should,  on  every  fair  day,  be  taken  out,  and  aired  in 
•the  sun.  But  whenever  the  same  becomes  mouldy 
or  offensive  by  age,  it  must  be  thrown  away.  The 
blankets  of  the  men  should  also  be  daily  aired  and 
sunned. 

Once  a  week  they  should  be  made  to  wash  them- 
selves and  change  their  body  clothing,  and  an  oppor- 
tunity be  also  given  them  to  wash  their  soiled  clothes. 
Kegular  wash-days,  for  this  purpose,  when  practicable 
should  be  appointed,  in  order  to  avoid  the  accumula- 
tion of  soiled  clothing  in  the  tents. 

At  least  twice  in  every  week,  the  surgeon  or  his 
assistant  should  make  a  sanitary  inspection  of  all 
the  tents,  kitchens,  and  sinks  throughout  the  camp. 
Each  company  should  detail  two  corporals  to  attend 


THE    CAMP.  59 

him  in  the  inspection  of  its  own  tents.  Neither  the 
day  nor  the  hour  of  the  inspection  should  be  an- 
nounced beforehand. 

The  medical  officer,  at  the  same  time,  should  in- 
spect all  provisions  in  actual  use  ;  the  barrels,  boxes, 
pots,  or  cans  in  which  they  are  kept ;  and  the  power 
should  be  given  him  to  order  any  thing  to  be  de- 
stroyed with  whose  sanitary  condition  he  is  dissatis- 
fied. 

GUARD-MOVNTING. — As  sleep  is  among  the  most 
indispensable  of  our  necessities,  so  its  loss  is  fol- 
lowed by  a  degree  of  lassitude  and  discomfort 
amounting  in  many  to  actual  suffering.  Although 
all  do  not  immediately  experience  the  same  ill  effects 
from  its  loss,  yet  practically  the  effect  is  in  the  end 
the  same,  whenever  the  absence  of  sleep  is  protracted. 
The  young  and  the  weakly  succumb  first,  the  mature 
and  the  healthy  follow  them  also  at  no  inconsiderable 
interval  of  time.  Superadded  to  the  fatigues  of  the 
day,  the  duty  of  mounting  guard  is,  among  young 
troops,  the  severest  task  which  can  be  imposed  upon 
them.  Nothing,  in  fact,  will  sooner  destroy  the 
health  of  youth  than  privation  of  a  due  amount  of 
sleep ;  and  it  is  on  this  account  that  it  becomes  im- 
portant to  allot  the  duty  of  guard-mounting  to  those 
who  can  stand  it  best. 

As  a  hygienic  rule  founded  in  a  strict  economy 
of  strength,  the  youngest  troops  (from  18  to  21) 
should  not  be  put  on  guard  at  night  after  a  march, 
or  battle,  although  they  may,  when  a  regiment  is 
permanently  encamped.  But  in  any  event,  the  first 


60  THE    CAMP. 

hours  of  the  night  should  not  be  assigned  to  them. 
The  mature  of  age  are  more  wakeful  during  the  early 
part  of  night,  while  the  young  are  more  disposed  to 
sleep.  Hence  the  young  should  be  put  on  duty  dur- 
ing the  last  watches  of  the  night,  and  when  they 
have  already  received  all  needed  benefit  from  sleep. 
The  older  men  will,  in  like  manner,  receive  their 
measure  of  rest  at  the  time  when  nature  most 
prompts  them  to  seek  it,  so  that  by  thus  following 
the  dictates  of  natural  appetites  the  health  of  al] 
classes  may  be  preserved. 

Sleep  is,  indeed,  such  an  imperative  necessity 
with  the  young,  that  to  rob  them  of  it  is  to  strike 
the  most  cruel  blow  at  their  physical  vigor.  The 
loss  of  a  meal,  or  a  long  march,  will  not  produce  such 
depressing  effects  upon  their  health  as  the  loss  of 
one  night's  sleep.  And  the  nervous  energy  being 
thus  lowered  in  tone,  the  system  becomes  readily 
accessible  to  the  seeds  of  any  endemic  or  epidemic 
malady.  It  is  rendered  more  sensitive  to  the  im- 
pressions of  cold,  to  the  influence  of  malaria,  and,  in 
fact,  to  all  extraneous  circumstances.  Timely  circum- 
spection on  the  part  of  officers  is  needed  here,  to  pre- 
vent injuring  troops,  which,  surrounded  by  all  other 
hygienic  conditions,  may  yet,  through  a  negligent 
disregard  of  the  proper  allotment  of  sleep  necessary 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  different  ages,  be  debili- 
tated and  unfitted  for  the  successful  performance  of 
their  duties  in  the  field. 


CHAPTEE   VII. 

THE    FOOD. 

THE  diet  of  the  soldier  plays  an  important  part 
in  the  economy  of  his  military  life.  For,  in  contra- 
distinction to  the  civilian,  it  is  not  sufficient  that  his 
food  should  simply  sustain  life,  but  it  should  also 
be  possessed  of  such  qualities  as  to  develop  in  him 
a  high  degree  oi*  animal  spirits.  It  should  give  vigor 
to  his  health  through  appropriate  stimulating  virtues, 
and  leave  behind  a  measure  of  positive  strength  due 
to  its  inherent  tonic  properties.  All  have  observed 
the  diversities  which  national  character  assumes  un- 
der varieties  of  diet.  The  difference  between  the 
meat  and  wheat-fed  European,  and  the  rice-fed  Hin- 
doo ;  the  maize-fed  Mexican,  and  the  fish  and  yam- 
fed  South  Sea  Islander,  in  all  the  qualities  of  intellec- 
tuality, strength  of  body,  and  persevering  energy  and 
endurance,  is  too  marked  to  have  escaped  notice.  It 
may  be  stated  as  a  universal  rule,  that  the  conquer- 
ing races  of  the  earth  have  always  been  the  best  fed 
races,  not  indeed  in  the  sense  of  luxurious  indulgence, 
but  in  the  possession  and  use  of  those  aliments  which 
4 


62  THE   FOOD. 

impress  upon  the  system  a  vigorous  tone,  and  thus 
develop  physical  courage.  The  same  rule  also  ob- 
tains among  animals.  The  high  bred  hunter,  the 
racehorse,  or  the  roadster,  all  attest  through  the 
manner  in  which  they  do  their  appointed  work,  the 
tonifying  quality  of  their  diet. 

All  these  truisms  point  directly  to  the  necessity 
of  making  the  soldier's  dietary  an  important  part  of 
the  discipline  of  an  army,  as  well  as  of  its  hygiene. 
In  an  economic  point  of  view,  it  may  be  said  that  a 
weak  soldier  is  no  soldier,  costing  the  state  more  to 
support  him  than  his  services  are  worth.  True  wis- 
dom, and  true  economy,  therefore,  lies  in  furnishing 
him  with  such  qualities  of  aliment  as  will  keep  his 
physical  energies  always  at  par.  His  life  is  peculiarly 
exposed  to  incessant  causes  of  debility  and  to  attacks 
of  disease.  He  is  suddenly  translated  from  civic  life, 
with  its  regular,  generally  controllable  duties,  to  a 
military  life  with  its  fatiguing  drills,  marches,  guard- 
mountings,  irregularities  in  times  of  occupation  and 
eating,  overcrowding  in  tents  and  barracks,  exposure 
to  heat  and  moisture,  and  vicissitudes  of  climate,  all 
of  which  none  will  certainly  pretend  to  say  are  cal- 
culated to  strengthen,  so  much  as  they  are  to  shock, 
and  to  enfeeble  the  system.  Such  an  individual  of 
all  others,  needs  a  tonic  and  recuperating  diet,  and 
unless  he  finds  it,  very  soon  takes  his  place  in  a 
hospital  ward  with  broken  health.  It  is  far  cheaper 
to  feed  him  well  in  the  field  than  to  nurse  him  in  the 
hospital. 

In  order,  therefore,  to  be  serviceable  to  the  state, 


THE   FOOD.  63 

soldiers  must  be  fed  well.  In  order  to  enable 
them  to  bear  the  fatigues  of  marching,  to  breast  the 
vicissitudes  of  weather,  and  to  encounter,  unaffected, 
the  changes  of  climate,  their  bodies  must  be  nourished 
with  particular  reference  to  developing  a  high  mus- 
cular tone.  Experience  has  shown  that  a  mixed  diet, 
in  which  animal  food  preponderates,  is  that  most  con- 
ducive to  this  result.  Consequently  it  is  to  such  a 
form  of  diet  that  we  must  look  for  maintaining  the 
health  and  utility  of  an  army.  Nothing  is  more  true 
than  that  good  food  is  as  much  a  munition  of  war  as 
good  powder. 

On  examining  the  bill  of  rations  of  our  army, 
two  important  facts  strike  us  at  the  outset.  The  first 
is  the  narrow  range  of  the  dietary,  amounting  in  its 
monotonous  uniformity  almost  to  exclusivism,  and 
second  its  too  often  unseasonable  character.  Now,  in 
these  days  of  easy  transportation,  there  is  clearly  no 
justification  on  the  plea  of  economy  for  either,  while 
science  and  experience  conspire  to  condemn  both  as 
the  fruitful  sources  of  mischief  to  health.  There  is 
an  instinctive  craving  for  variety  of  food  in  all  or- 
ganisms, and  however  good  any  single  article  may  in 
itself  be,  its  continued  and  exclusive  use  for  any 
length  of  time  is  sure  to  inspire  disgust,  and  conse- 
quently to  impair  its  nutritive  character.  In  such 
cases  men  may  be  filled  with  it,  and  yet  not  fed  by 
it,  because  nutrition  depends  upon  assimilation,  and 
assimilation  upon  that  tone  of  the  digestive  canal 
which  manifests  itself  through  taste  and  relish.  What 
we  cease  to  relish  we  are  neither  apt  to  assimilate, 


64:  THE   FOOD. 

nor  to  be  nourished  by.  The  very  craving  for  va- 
riety in  food  is  thus  made  an  index  of  the  necessity  of 
a  change  in  its  character  to  our  organism. 

Again,  we  may  have,  relatively  speaking,  a  strong 
diet  at  any  period  of  the  year,  but  in  order  also  to  be 
a  healthy  one,  it  must  conform  itself  in  a  measure  to 
the  requirements  of  the  season.  Hence,  in  an  army, 
every  thing,  whether  labor,  food,  or  clothing,  should 
be  regulated  first  of  all  by  the  necessities  of  the  sea- 
son. And  inasmuch  as  most  campaigns,  or  active 
operations  in  the  field,  take  place  in  summer,  and 
may,  besides,  extend  into  hot  climates,  the  soldier's 
dietary  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  enable  him  not  only 
to  meet  the  exigencies  of  his  own  laborious  calling, 
but  also  to  resist  the  constitutional  influences  of  a  de- 
bilitating season.  The  object  should  be  to  have  each 
article  nutritious,  without  at  the  same  time  inducing 
any  predisposition  to  diseases  of  the  season.  In  a 
word,  the  dietary  should  be  both  alimentary  and  cor- 
rective. 

A  diet  consisting  simply  of  flesh  and  cereals,  al- 
though eminently  nourishing,  could  not  be  endured 
throughout  the  summer  with  impunity.  And  if  that 
flesh  were  salted,  it  would  greatly  increase  the  tend- 
ency to  disease.  The  proximate  principles  of  or- 
ganic matter  must  always  be  present,  but  they  should 
change  their  proportions  and  relative  position  in  the 
scale  of  our  rations  to  meet  climatic  variations.  As 
now  established,  the  soldier's  fare  is  a  true  winter 
diet,  and  rich  in  elements  well  suited  to  meet  the  re- 
quirements of  respiration,  under  a  low  temperature. 


THE  FOOD.  65 

In  summer,  on  the  contrary,  the  excess  of  carbon  fur- 
nished by  it  to  the  lungs  beyond  what  they  can  dis- 
pose of,  imposes  additional  duties  of  elimination  upon 
the  liver,  and  tends  unduly  to  excite  this  organ.  A 
predisposition  to  biliary  disorders  is  consequently 
engendered. 

In  order  to  counteract  the  ill  effects  of  so  alkales- 
cent a  diet  in  summer,  recourse  must  be  had  to  fruits 
and  vegetable  acids.  These,  with  spices,  are  nature's 
own  correctives.  Both,  also  admitting  of  preservation, 
should  be  regularly  included  among  army  supplies. 
By  a  proper  disposition  of  his  diet,  man  lives  as 
healthfully  under  the  equator  as  under  the  pole.  The 
East  Indian  with  his  rice  and  yams,  and  the  Esqui- 
matfx  with  his  seal-blubber  and  putrid  fish,  are  both 
healthy  enough  in  their  respective  climates,  but  let 
them  once  change  residences  without  changing  their 
diet,  and  what  would  be  the  consequence  ?  The  Es- 
quimaux would  be  attacked  with  putrid  fever,  and  the 
West  Indian  would  die  of  inanition. 

We  perceive  from  this  the  absolute  necessity  of 
modifying  all  forms  of  diet  in  such  a  way  as  to  ac- 
commodate them  to  the  physiological  requirements 
of  varying  seasons.  For  habit  is  not  acquirable 
as  against  the  laws  of  chemical  combination,  and  no 
man  can  become  habituated  to  doing  that  with  im- 
punity, which,  being  a  violation  of  the  physiological 
laws  of  his  system,  is,  by  its  frequent  admonitions  of 
pain,  notifying  him  of  the  evil  about  to  overtake  him. 

As  the  ration  bill  now  stands,  it  presents  us 
with  too  concentrated  a  form  of  diet  for  continued 


66  THE   FOOD. 

use.  It  abounds  in  ftbrine,  gluten,  and  fat,  without, 
however,  a  sufficiency  in  starch,  mucilage,  gelatin,  and 
acids.  Aromatic  herbs  and  spices,  without  which 
health  cannot  for  any  length  of  time  be  preserved, 
particularly  in  hot  climates  or  seasons,  are  entirely 
omitted,  while  fat  pork,  an  article  contra-indicated  in 
summer  both  by  the  state  of  the  appetite  and  the 
physiological  necessities  of  the  system,  stands  as  the 
sheet  anchor  of  its  animal  food.  Lean  hams,  shoul- 
ders and  sides,  or  jerked  beef,  should  be  substituted 
in  its  stead.  In  the  arrangement  of  the  summer  diet- 
ary, it  should  be  remembered  that  animal  fats  must 
take  a  subordinate  rank,  and  starchy  food,  esculent 
roots,  aromatics,  and  vegetable  acids  be  allowed  to  pre- 
ponderate. 

It  is  not  from  the  quantity  of  food  digested,  so 
much  as  by  the  power  of  assimilating  it,  that  man- 
kind are  nourished.  A  pound  and  a  half  of  pork  or 
beef  per  day  would  sicken  and  debilitate  the  Arab 
whose  handful  of  dates  enables  him,  between  sun  and 
sun,  to  perform  fatiguing  exercises  ;  while  the  same 
amount  of  flesh  would  hardly  suffice  to  keep  alive  an 
Esquimaux  bantling.  The  reason  for  this  difference 
rests  solely  in  the  function  of  assimilation,  a  function 
which  is  of  all  others  the  most  speedily  affected  and 
deranged  by  too  exclusive  and  concentrated  a  diet. 
The  story  of  the  peasant  wrho  broke  his  thigh,  and 
while  in  the  hospital  fell  into  a  complete  marasmus 
when  fed  on  beef-tea,  custards,  rice-milk  and  wine, 
and  only  recovered  when  restored  to  his  original  diet 
of  black  bread,  greens,  fish,  and  oil,  is  a  pointed  illus- 


THE    FOOD.  67 

tration  of  the  innutritions  effects  of  too  nutritious  a 
dietary  long  persisted  in. 

Now,  because  soldiers  have  hard  work  to  do,  we 
must  not  imagine  that  all  they  require  in  food  is 
simply  what  chemists  have  ascertained  to  be  nutritive 
reparative  qualities.  They  cannot  be  fed  like  steam- 
engines,  by  just  so  many  pounds  of  this  or  that  kind 
of  fuel  daily  and  unvaryingly  administered.  A  man 
losing  2  or  3  pounds  in  weight  by  perspiration  to- 
day, could  not  be  restored  to-night  by  simply  gorg- 
ing him  with  a  like  weight  of  beef,  pork,  or  bread. 
In  the  presence  of  vital  forces,  the  conduct  of  organic 
functions  cannot  be  regulated  by  chemical  formulae 
born  of  the  laboratory.  No  narrow  methodism  is 
tolerable  here.  We  must  follow  experience  alone ; 
and  experience  everywhere  shows  that  in  the  healthy 
health  is  alone  to  be  preserved  by  a  liberal,  mixed 
diet.  If  we  would  preserve  the  health  of  our  troops 
we  must  amplify  the  range  of  their  dietary.  It  may 
cost  a  little  more,  and  but  a  little  more,  yet  that  little 
is  an  hundred  per  cent,  less  than  the  cost  of  nursing 
a  sick  man,  paying  him  wages  besides,  and  over  all, 
losing  the  benefit  of  his  presence  on  the  battle-field. 
We  fancy  that  no  economist  would  be  long  in  deter- 
mining which  measure  of  the  two  is  cheapest  in  the 
end. 

Experience  having  demonstrated  that  no  single 
substance,  be  it  animal  or  vegetable,  when  exclusively 
indulged  in  for  any  length  of  time,  can  support  the 
human  body  in  health,  but  that  the  continuous  use  of 
the  same  food  produces  debility  of  the  digestive  ap- 


03  THE   FOOD. 

paratus,  satiety,  and  consequent  faulty  nutrition,  it 
becomes  indispensable  to  the  health  of  soldiers  that 
each  meal  should  be  composed  of  a  due  admixture  of 
animal  and  vegetable  substances,  and  further  that  the 
dietary  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  avoid  repetition 
and  sameness  in  the  articles  daily  used. 

It  is  also  established  that,  in  order  to  maintain 
healthy  digestion,  all  alimentary  substances  should 
occasionally  be  accompanied  by  condiments  of  a  sa- 
line, spicy,  or  aromatic  and  acid  character.  Salt, 
pepper,  and  the  aromatic  principles  of  certain  vege- 
tables like  onions,  parsley,  thyme,  and  garlick ;  the 
spices  proper,  cloves,  gingel*,  &c.,  or  the  vegetable 
acids,  sorrel,  vinegar,  &c.,  .when  taken  in  concert  with 
our  food,  tend  to  promote  its  more  perfect  elabora- 
tion, or  to  correct  a  disposition  to  fermentation  and 
putrescency. 

In  a  country  blessed  with  plenty  like  our  own, 
with  means  of  transportation  at  every  door,  and  where 
almost  every  village  sends  its  company  of  volunteers, 
it  is  not  difficult  to  provide  a  dietary  like  that  which 
follows.  The  articles  superadded  to  the  regular 
army  rations  could  be  easily  made  up  for  each  com- 
pany in  its  own  home,  and  forwarded  to  its  quarters 
in  the  field.  Thus  barrels  of  apples,  potatoes,  onions 
and  carrots,  where  troops  are  at  a  depot,  might  easily 
be  sent  them.  It  is  understood  that  the  Government 
makes  no  objection  to  their  transmission,  and  nothing 
but  willingness  is  therefore  wanted  on  the  part  of 
patriotic  committees  at  home. 

In  alimentary  rank  animal  food  must  take  pre- 


THE    FOOD. 


cedence  of  all  other  kinds.  Next  to  this  come  bread 
and  farinaceous  articles,  and  lastly  esculent  roots  and 
spices.  The  order  of  their  disposition  in  any  dietary 
should  be  nearly  as  follows  : 


FOR   A   WINTER   DIET. 

Pork,  3  days  in  a  week. 
Beef,*  3  days  in  a  week. 
Mutton,  or  Salt  Fish,  1  day  in 

a  week. 

Flour,f  Wheat  and  Indian. 
Beans,  2  days  in  a  week. 
Potatoes,  2  days  in  a  week. 
Esculent  Roots,  Pickled  Cab- 

bage,  and   dried    Fruits, 

3  times  a  week. 
Coffee,  twice  daily. 
Sugar  —  Spices. 


FOR  A   SUMMER   DIET. 

Beef,  3  days. 

Mutton,  3  days. 

Pork,  or  Salt  Fish,  1  day. 

Flour. 

Beans  or  Barley,  1  day. 
Rice,  3  days. 

Dried  or  fresh  Fruits,  or  Pickled 
Cabbage,  3  days. 

Coffee,  twice  daily. 
Sugar — Spices. 


With  regard  to  quality,  it  may  be  said  that  fresh 
meats  are  always  more  nourishing  than  salt,  dried,  or 

*  The  cheapness  of  beef  in  our  country  renders  it  unnecessary 
that  I  should  say  aught  on  the  subject  of  horse-flesh,  now  so  much 
in  vogue  in  some  parts  of  Europe.  It  is  unquestionably  proved 
to  be  highly  palatable,  nutritious,  and  in  nowise  inferior  to  beef 
as  an  article  of  alimentation.  Philosophers  have  fed  upon  it,  and 
detailed  with  rapture  its  good  qualities,  and  one  of  them,  Geoffrey 
de  St.  Hilaire,  has  consecrated  its  merits  in  a  volume  of  consider- 
able size. 

f  It  is  more  economical,  as  well  as  healthy, 'to  feed  soldiers  on 
stale,  rather  than  on  fresh  bread.  Less  of  the  farmer  is  apt  to  be 
eaten,  and  less  suffices  to  nourish  them.  By  stale  is  to  be  under- 
stood bread  which  has  been  out  of  the  oven,  and  exposed  to  the 
air  at  least  24  hours. 

It  would  be  better  also  if  the  bread  could  be  made  of  wheat- 
middlings,  instead  of  fine  flour,  as  a  large  percentage  of  nutritive 
matter  (gluten)  is  removed  with  the  husk  in  the  process  of  bolting. 
Indian  meal  should  also  be  occasionally  mixed  with  fine  flour  in 


70  THE   FOOD. 

smoked,  which  latter  are  also  more  indigestible. 
That  the  flesh  of  grown  animals  exceeds  in  nutritive 
value  that  of  the  young,  and  that  moderately  fat 
meats  are  the  best  of  all. 

With  regard  to  vegetables  and  fruits  the  same 
rules  apply,  to  a  certain  extent.  Fresh  vegetables  are 
always  preferable  to  dry  or  preserved  ones.  Fari- 
naceous vegetables  like  potatoes,  beans,  and  peas, 
are  more  nourishing  than  roots  and  grasses,  such  as 
cabbage,  spinage,  &c.  Nevertheless,  the  system  oc- 
casionally requires  such  articles  as  cabbages,  turnips, 
onions,  carrots,  &c.,  and  their  peculiarly  corrective 
qualities  are  called  for  to  mitigate  the  scorbutic  ten- 
dencies of  too  exclusive  a  diet  of  salt  meat.*  The  acid 
fruits,  like  dried  apples  and  peaches,  when  fresh  ones 
cannot  be  obtained,  should  find  a  regular  place  in  the 

making  bread.  The  popular  aversion  to  dark-colored  bread, 
founded  on  the  supposition  of  its  lesser  amount  of  nourishment, 
is  a  gross  error.  The  best  soldiers  in  the  world  are  fed  on  dark- 
colored  bread. 

The  importance  of  good  bread  to  health  is  so  universally 
recognized  that  I  have  deemed  it  unnecessary  to  say  aught  upon 
the  subject.  There  are  frequent  enough  complaints  about  the 
quality  of  the  beef  issued  to  troops,  but  I  imagine  that  there  is 
full  as  much  dereliction  in  the  matter  of  bread.  Now,  certainly, 
there  can  be  no  excuse  for  either,  although,  of  the  two,  I  entertain 
no  doubt  that  bad  bread  works  more  silent  mischief  than  bad 
beef.  And  if  this  be  so,  it  becomes  the  duty  of  medical  officers  to 
provide  some  remedy,  in  the  form  of  instruction  to  cooks  on  the 
philosophy  of  bread-making. 

*  The  virtues  of  saur-lcraut  as  an  anti-scorbutic  are  well  known, 
and  although  its  smell  (due  to  the  presence  of  valerianic  acid)  is 
undoubtedly  unpleasant,  it  deserves,  in  a  sanitary  point  of  view, 
a  place  in  our  army  dietary  as  a  condiment  of  much  value. 


THE    FOOD.  71 

soldier's  dietary.  Vinegar,  as  with  salt  and  pepper, 
should  never  be  wanting.  Nor  should  the  aromatic 
spices,  cloves,  ginger,  and  cinnamon  be  overlooked. 
They  play  an  important  and  hygienic  part  in  the 
domestic  economy  of  the  camp,  and  should  not  be 
restricted  to  the  medicine  chest  of  the  surgeon. 

But  the  virtue  of  food,  however  good,  may  all  be 
destroyed  by  bad  cooking.  And  this  time-honored 
observation  has  led  to  the  belief  among  many  that 
while  the  Spirit  of  Goodness  sends  the  food,  the  Spirit 
of  Evil  sends  the  cook !  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  man- 
ner of  preparing  the  food  of  soldiers  is  one  of  the 
most  important  of  considerations,  and  as  such  de- 
serves notice  in  this  connection. 

The  French,  who  have  systematized  every  thing 
down  to  the  nicety  of  a  mathematical  proposition,  in- 
sist in  their  army  dietaries  that  the  best  possible 
preparation  of  animal  food  is  in  the  form  of  soups. 
Roasts  and  stews  with  them  only  claim  a  secondary 
position.  But  in  their  field  soups  besides  meat  there 
are  always  vegetables  introduced.  We  have  then 
what  New-Englanders  call  a  boiled  dinner.  As  a 
general  rule  it  may  be  said  that  when  soup  is  prop- 
erly made,  it  furnishes  us  with  all  the  nutritive  ele- 
ments of  both  flesh  and  vegetables  contained  in  it.  It 
presents  to  us  animal  juices  in  a  state  of  solution,  to- 
gether with  the  mucilage  of  vegetables,  and  the  sapid 
principles  of  both.  But  this  highly  concentrated  form 
of  nourishment  should  be  qualified  by  consuming  the 
now  almost  innutritions  flesh  and  vegetables  with 
which  it  has  been  made.  We  need  the  bouilli,  or  the 


72  THE    FOOD. 

woody  fibre  of  the  vegetable  after  partaking  of  the  soup, 
because  we  need  bulk  as  well  as  nourishment  in  our 
food.  The  intestinal  canal  must  be  distended  as  well 
as  stimulated.  Bread,  also,  should  be  eaten  with  it. 

In  making  soups,  good  cooks  say  that  the  meat 
should  be  put  into  cold  water,  in  quantity  sufficient 
to  be  reduced  one-third  by  boiling.  The  water  should 
not  at  any  time  boil  violently,  but  simmer,  for  from 
4  to  5  hours,  and  no  more  must  ever  be  added  after 
the  soup  has  begun  to  boil.  Vegetables  should  be 
introduced  for  two  purposes,  viz. :  to  increase  the 
nutritive  qualities  of  the  soup,  and  to  flavor  it.  A 
knowledge  of  this  fact  will  enable  the  mess-cooks  to 
regulate  suitably  their  proportions.  Baked  meats 
are  more  economical  than  broiled,  or  those  roasted  in 
the  open  air,  both  which  lose  by  these  last-named 
processes  some  of  their  nutritive  qualities.  All  stews 
made  of  beef,  mutton,  or  pork  should  be  accompanied 
by  appropriate  vegetables  and  condiments. 

Whenever  practicable,  fresh  fruits  should  be  al- 
lowed the  men,  in  lieu  of  vegetables,  but  never  in  lieu 
of  animal  food. 

As  to  beverages,  coffee  being  a  regulation-drink, 
and  like  water  always  to  be  had,  nothing  need  be  said 
on  that  score ;  but  there  are  others  which,  under  cer- 
tain circumstances,  are  called  for  as  a  hygienic  safe- 
guard. 

EDUCATED    COOKS. 

It  is  somewhat  singular  that,  although  the  impor- 
tance of  good  food  to  health  is  everywhere  acknowl- 


THE   FOOD.  73 


edged,  and  the  evils  consequent  upon  ill-cooking  are 
everywhere  deplored,  no  means  are  yet  adopted  to 
remedy  the  latter  by  providing  a  corps  of  scientific 
cooks  for  our  armies.  The  anathemas  so  constantly 
launched  against  the  commissariat  department  for  not 
providing  the  raw  materials  of  good  quality,  might 
with  great  justice  be  distributed,  in  perhaps  the  larg- 
est measure,  over  the  department  of  kitchen  and  cooks. 
Administrative  vigilance  limits  its  efforts  to  furnMi- 
ing  a  due  quantity  of  supplies,  generally  of  an  in. 
different  quality,  and  there  rests.  How  the  food  is 
cooked,  or  whether  it  be  cooked  at  all,  is  apparently 
a  matter  of  perfect  indifference  to  all  in  authority. 
The  inconsistency  manifested  by  such  conduct  is  little 
short  of  criminal,  for  it  is  in  every  sense  a  neglect 
of  one  of  the  most  efficient  means  for  preserving  the 
health  of  armies.  In  any  other  of  the  details  of  mili- 
tary service  no  similar  degree  of  negligence  would  be 
tolerated.  Were  so  many  hundred  pounds  of  powder 
to  be  issued  to  make  so  many  thousand  cartridges, 
no  commander  would  rest  satisfied  with  the  report 
that  the  powder  was  dry,  and  of  good  quality ;  but 
he  would  insist  upon  knowing  who  were  to  make  the 
cartridges — whether  the  workmen  had  the  necessary 
tools  given  them,  and  whether  they  possessed  the 
requisite  skill.  He  certainly  would  not  allow  the 
unlearned  to  take  part  in  the  operation,  except  under 
the  eye  and  direction  of  competent  instructors. 

Now  some  similar  degree  of  vigilance  is  precisely 
what  is  needed  in  the  culinary  department  of  armies. 
We  need,  and  we  must  have  educated  army  cooks,  in 
5 


fat  THE   FOOD. 

order  to  prevent  disease,  waste  of  food,  and  to  extract 
the  best  possible  good  from  it.  Soldiers  must  be  fed 
and  nourished,  as  well  as  filled  and  distended  by  their 
rations.  They  are  not  anacondas,  or  ostriches,  whose 
digestive  organs  can  dispose  of  any  thing  that  may 
be  presented  to  their  action.  t  Hence  boggy-bread,  and 
leathery  beans  have  killed  more  troops  than  bullets, 
and  they  will  continue  to  do  so,  until  some  radical 
reform  is  introduced  into  regimental  kitchens.  It  is 
idle  to  seek  for  probable  causes  of  disease,  in  air, 
water,  or  earth,  outside  the  camp,  when  so  permanent 
and  manifest  a  cause  is  assiduously  at  work  within. 
The  work  of  purification  and  prevention  must  begin 
here.  The  kitchen  must  be  ennobled  into  an  institu- 
tion of  science — of  systematized  intelligence,  and  of 
skilful  adaptation  of  means  to  ends.  In  fact,  cooks 
must  be  honored  by  an  education  in  the  chemistry  of 
their  own  specialty.  They  should  be  taught  the 
how  and  the  wherefore  of  their  art,  and  be  elevated 
above  the  ignoble  craft  of  scullions  by  a  course  of 
training  calculated  to  win  respect  for  them  in  the  eyes 
of  others. 

Every  company  should  have  one  educated  cook, 
whose  duty  it  should  be  to  attend  to  nothing  but  the 
kitchen.  He  should  be  considered  a  non-combatant, 
and  always  retained  as  such.  An  assistant  should  be 
given  him,  but  the  cook  alone  should  be  responsible 
for  the  good  dressing  of  the  food. 

Some  such  regulations  as  these  would,  if  enforced, 
insure  to  each  regiment  a  body  of  disciplined  cooks 
calculated  to  promote  in  a  very  high  degree  the  com- 


THE   FOOD.  75 

fort  of  the  men,  and  to  preserve  their  health,  by  pro- 
tecting them  from  the  evil  and  insidious  influences  of 
bad  cooking.  And  when  the  good  results  which  may 
be  thus  secured  at  so  cheap  a  cost  are  considered,  it 
would  seem  as  though  it  were  only  necessary  to  point 
them  out  in  order  to  have  instant  measures  taken  to 
obtain  them.  It  is  certainly  time  that  something 
were  done  in  the  matter.  Humanity,  no  less  than 
economy,  is  interested  in  the  subject;  for  inexorable 
facts  show  that  -the  dietary  of  troops  is  one  of  the 
chief  avenues  through  which  disease  assails  them,  and 
that  dietary,  as  all  know,  depends  for  its  influence 
upon  health,  almost  as  much  upon  the  mode  in  which 
it  is  prepared,  as  upon  original  qualities. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

THE    CLOTHING. 

THE  clothing  of  soldiers,  until  recently,  has  never 
received  that  attention  which  its  great  importance 
deserves.  The  idea  of  its  character,  which  obtained 
up  to  the  middle  almost  of  the  present  century,  was 
evidently  an  inheritance  of  the  past,  and  transmit- 
ted to  us  along  with  the  legends  of  Wellington  and 
Napoleon.  A  soldier,  in  those  days,  was  a  man  in 
"  brass  and  buckram  "  of  formidable  aspect,  truly, 
but  set  in  so  thick  a  harness  of  padded  cloth  and 
leather,  and  so  encumbered  by  the  weight  of  arms, 
and  of  his  clothing,  as  to  labor  under  every  possible 
disadvantage  in  a  fight.  Constrained  in  every  effort 
by  the  style  of  his  clothes,  and  oppressed  on  all  sides 
by  the  unrelenting  burthen  which  they  and  his  arms 
imposed  upon  him,  he  could  never  be  considered 
otherwise  than  an  oppressed  and  fatigued  man. 
Every  thing  in  his  equipment  seemed  calculated  to 
obstruct  freedom  of  motion  and  to  impair  his  ability 
of  performing  muscular  exertion.  It  seemed  singu- 
lar, indeed,  that  men  whose  duties  called  for  the 


THE   CLOTHING.  77 


greatest  agility,  whose  lives  and  whose  successes  de- 
pended upon  the  free  use  of  every  muscle,  should  by 
positive  enactment  be  encased  in  a  harness  calculated 
to  interfere  with  every  extensive  motion. 

The  terrible  realization  of  this  error  was  never 
forced  upon  European  commanders  until  the  French 
undertook  the  conquest  of  Algeria.  There,  the  mani- 
fest advantage  of  lightly  clad  and  armed  troops  over 
heavy  ones  was  found  to  compensate  almost  for  the 
deficiency  in  their  military  skill  and  discipline.  Not 
alone  on  account  of  the  climate,  but  also  to  remove 
every  obstacle  to  agility  which  the  French  at  once 
perceived  was  the  strong  point  of  all  Arabic  effec- 
tiveness, they  proceeded  to  modify  the  dress  of  their 
army.  An  entire  change  of  costume  was  the  conse- 
quence of  this  observation.  Every  thing  heavy  and 
constraining,  or  impeding  in  any  way  the  free  move- 
ment of  any  muscle  in  either  arm  or  leg,  neck,  shoul- 
der, or  back,  was  discarded.  Loose  pantaloons,  and 
jackets,  small  collars,  or  none,  light  kepis  instead  of 
heavy  shakos,  shoes  in  the  place  of  boots,  lighter 
rifles  and  muskets,  took  the  place  of  the  former  heavy 
arms  and  accoutrements. 

The  world  now  recognizes  the  wisdom  of  this 
change,  and  is  everywhere  hastening  to  adopt  it. 
Heavy,  tight  uniforms  are  giving  place  to  light  ones. 
The  idea  that  either  warmth  or  durability  are  de- 
pendent upon  weight  is  exploded.  We  have,  at  last, 
made  our  exodus  from  this  vestamental  Jericho. 

The  first  necessity  of  all  dress  is  warmth,  next  to 
that,  lightness.  These  two  conditions  are  best  ful- 


78  THE    CLOTHING. 

filled  by  woollen  fabrics.  Both  the  under  and  the 
outer  garments  of  the  soldier,  therefore,  should  con- 
sist of  this  material.  It  is  not  necessary  here  to 
speak  of  the  advantages  of  woollen  over  either  cotton 
or  linen.  The  world  decided  that  ages  ago. 

UNDER    GARMENTS. 
/ 

Both  in  summer  and  in  winter,  in  the  tropics  and 
under  the  pole,  wearing  flannel  next  to  the  skin  has 
been  found  a  protection  to  health.  And  except  in 
extraordinary  cases,  arid  where  some  cutaneous  idio- 
syncrasy forbids  its  use,  troops  should  be  made  to 
wear  it  night  and  day.  Where  a  whole  waistcoat 
cannot  be  endured,  a  flannel  apron,  or  bandage,  cover- 
ing the  abdomen  and  loins,  should  be  worn  in  like 
mariner.  Incipient  diarrhreas  and  dysenteries  are  by 
this  means  often  averted.  Of  the  flannel  bandage  no 
praise,  in  fact,  can  be  fulsome ;  it  is  the  best  friend  of 
the  soldier  in  all  climates  and  seasons,  and  no  one 
should  ever  go  without  it 

Besides  the  waistcoat,  light  flannel  drawers  should 
also  be  worn.  These  may  be  made  of  cotton  flannel, 
which  shrinks  less,  and  for  this  purpose  wears  better 
than  ordinary  woollen  flannel.  Woollen  socks  are 
;also  necessary  articles  to  health.  But  where  any 
specific  cause  exists  why  they  should  not  be  worn,  as 
by  ^causing  excessive  perspiration  and  tenderness  of 
the  feet,  thick  cotton  hose  should  be  served  out  in 
.their  stead. 


THE   CLOTHING.  79 


OUTER    CLOTHING. 


Inasmuch  as  regulation  prescribes  what  this  shall 
be,  little  opportunity  is  afforded  us  to  say  aught 
touching  either  the  pantaloons,  the  jacket,  or  the  over- 
coat. Of  the  necessity,  as  well  as  the  advantage  of 
their  being  loose,  we  have  already  spoken.  But  there 
is  a  subject  connected  with  the  uniform  of  soldiers, 
whose  importance  demands  a  passing  word  even  at 
the  hands  of  hygiene.  That  subject  is  its  color,  in  re- 
lation both  to  warmth  as  well  as  conspicuousness. 

Color  plays  an  important  part  in  the  clothing  of 
the  soldier  in  two  ways.  First,  as  receiving  and  re- 
taining more  or  less  of  the  sun's  rays,  and  being  on 
that  account  hotter,  and  second  as  presenting  better 
or  worse  marks  for  an  enemy's  aim.  In  relation  to 
heat,  it  is  well  known  that  black  or  any  dark  colors 
are  particularly  absorbent  of  the  sunlight,  and  conse- 
quently make  very  hot  clothing.  The  manifest  im- 
propriety of  selecting  such  colors  for  summer  wear, 
unless,  as  in  the  zouave,  the  jacket  is  left  open,  be- 
comes apparent  to  all.  Such  clothing  are  simply 
sweltering  clothes,  and  harass  the  soldier  unncessarily. 
The  Arabs,  daily  exposed  to  the,  sun,  wear  a  white 
bournouse,  which,  although  made  of  woollen,  is  not  in 
the  least  oppressive.  A  tight  dark  garment  would 
be  intolerable  in  their  climate.  But  white  cannot  be 
kept  clean,  besides  which  it  is  too  glaring  to  the  eye, 
affords  too  good  a  mark  to  the  enemy,  and  is  there- 
fore objectionable.  The  same  reason  applies  to  red. 


80  THE   CLOTHING. 

Gray,  luff,  or  any  neutral  tint,  presents  us  with  the 
best  requisites  for  a  uniform. 

But  the  second  aspect  under  which  color  can  be 
viewed  in  relation  to  uniforms,  is  that  in  which  it 
presents  itself  as  a  mark  for  an  enemy's  aim.  The 
least  possible  thought  upon  the  subject  will  convince 
us  that  all  brilliant  colors,  red,  orange,  white,  are, 
from  their  high  reflective  powers,  visible  at  great 
distances,  and  consequently  a  fair  mark  for  sharp- 
shooters. Therefore  pickets,  guards,  and  skirmishers 
should  wear  clothing  of  a  more  sober  and  neutral 
tint.  Statistics  declare  that  for  every  12  men  in  red 
who  are  struck  in  an  engagement,  there  are  only  7  in 
green,  and  5  in  gray,  thus  showing  the  decided  advan- 
tage of  this  last  color  over  all  others  in  point  of  im- 
munity. These  simple  facts  should  be  allowed  to  have 
more  weight  than  they  do  in  the  uniforming  of  volun- 
teer regiments,  and  surely,  if  color  can  in  some  degree 
prevent  liability  to  bullet-wounds,  and  thus  diminish 
the  ratio  of  an -army's  mortality,  hygiene  does  not 
transcend  its  province  by  calling  attention  to  the  fact. 

The  very  small  size  of  the  kepis  and  its  closeness 
to  the  head,  by  forbidding  all  circulation,  and  keeping 
a  heated  cloth  in  contact  with  the  skull,  greatly  pre- 
disposes to  accidents  by  sunstroke.  To  prevent  this, 
the  so-called  Havelock  cap,  or  helmet  of  white  linen, 
with  a  tail-piece  shielding  the  entire  neck,  is  a  most 
desirable  invention.  This  cap  is  worn  by  the  British 
army  in  India,  and  proves  an  effectual  protection 
against  sunstroke.  It  should  be  at  once  adopted 
among  our  own  troops. 


THE    CLOTHING.  81 

Shoes  with  gaiters  are  the  most  desirable  of  all 
foot  coverings  for  soldiers.  They  are  lighter  than 
boots,  allow  more  freedom  of  motion  to  the  ankle, 
and  do  not  occupy  so  much  room  in  the  knapsack. 
The  confined  atmosphere  of  the  boot,  which  under 
exposure  to  the  sun  becomes  insufferably  hot,  keeping 
the  foot  in  a  vapor  bath,  and  acting  almost  like  a 
blister  upon  it,  is  entirely  avoided  in  the  shoe.  The 
use  of  boots,  in  fact,  should  be  prohibited  to  soldiers, 
as  wearing  them  on  a  long  march  certainly  impairs 
the  soundness  of  men's  feet.  In  summer,  a  white 
canvas  gaiter  should  cover  the  shoe,  as  well  to  pro- 
tect the  foot  from  the  sun,  as  to  prevent  the  dust  from 
entering  it  while  marching. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

ON  THE  PREVENTION  OF  DISEASE  IN  GENERAL,  AND 
THE  INDIVIDUAL  PRESERVATION  OF  HEALTH. 

ALTHOUGH  what  has  been  said  in  the  foregoing 
chapters  relates  to  the  care  of  troops,  and  the  main- 
tenance of  a  better  state  of  health  among  them  in  the 
various  circumstances  of  their  active  life,  I  have  still 
thought  that  it  might  be  advisable  to  devote  a  special 
chapter  to  the  prevention  of  disease,  and  the  individual 
preservation  of  health,  as  furnishing  suggestions  for 
general  and  individual  guidance  under  the  ordinary 
necessities  of  a  soldier's  existence. 

GENERAL     GUIDANCE. 

CLIMATE. 

The  sudden  changes  of  climate  to  which  soldiers 
are  exposed  in  a  campaign,  are  among  «the  most  im- 
portant of  the  causes  prejudicial  to  their  ^ealth. 
When  it  is  remembered  also  that  climate  does  not  so 
much  depend  upon  latitude  as  upon  the  physical  char- 
acter of  locality,  it  will  be  perceived  that  it  is  not 


GENERAL   PRESERVATION   OF  HEALTH.          83 

necessary  to  transport  troops  many  hundreds  of  miles 
in  order  to  bring  them  under  the  influences  of  an 
entirely  different  clime.  A  change  of  a  single  degree 
in  latitude  may  bring  us  where  the  nature  of  the 
locality,  the  soil,  the  character  of  the  vegetation,  and 
the  prevailing  winds,  are  as  a  foreign  clirne  to  our 
constitutions  ;  while,  even  in  the  midst  of  a  tropical 
climate  a  towering  mountain  will  present  us  with 
zones  of  temperature  varying  from  that  of  its  base  to 
that  of  the  Arctic  regions.  Altitude  is  therefore  a 
modifier  of  latitude.  The  climate  of  Vera  Cruz  and 
the  tierra  caliente  is  so  entirely  different  from  that  of 
other  places  in  the  same  latitude,  but  situate  high 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  that  the  inhabitants  of  these 
latter  regions  cannot  enter  what  is  to  them,  the  foreign 
climate  of  the  coast,  without  suffering  from  endemic 
fevers  ;  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  mountains  bordering  on  the  Roman  campagna. 
Observation  shows  that  along  the  sea-coast  and 
the  borders  of  rivers,  in  the  southerly  part  of  tempe- 
rate climates,  the  daily  evaporation  from  the  surface 
is  productive  of  heavy  dews,  more  or  less  laden 
with  the  products  of  decomposed  vegetable  matter. 
Where  land-winds  also  habitually  prevail,  these  pro- 
ducts are  dispersed  over  regions  remote  from  the 
centre  of  their  production.  Contaminating  effluvia  are 
thus  transported  into  the  atmosphere  of  localities  free 
from  any  internal  sources  of  malaria.*  Low  grounds 

*  Dr.  Ferguson  was  of  opinion  that  the  intermittent  fever  at 
Edinburgh  was  due  to  malarial  poison  wafted  from  Holland. — 
Phil.  Jour.  Med.  &  Phys.  Sci.,  No.  16,  p.  374. 


84:          GENERAL   PEESERYATION   OF   HEALTH. 

covered  with  vegetation,  and  bordering  the  sea-coast 
or  the  river-banks  of  southerly  countries,  whether  they 
be  actually  dry  or  not,  are  always  to  be  considered 
malarious  regions,  as  towards  new  comers  from  the 
north. 

Deep  valleys  or  bottoms,  where  the  diurnal  varia- 
tions in  temperature  between  noon  and  night  are  no- 
ticed to  be  great,  (from  15°  to  30°,)  may  also  be  placed 
in  the  above  category. 

Situations  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain  immediately 
rising  from  a  low  plain  bordering  the  sea,  are  also 
objectionable. 

Rains  in  all  warm  climates  greatly  increase  the 
disparity  of  the  temperature,  and  even  in  a  single  day 
may  excite  dysenteric  affections.  For  this  reason, 
the  farther  south  we  go  the  more  protection  we  need 
against  moisture,  whether  in  the  form  of  dew  or 
rain. 

The  greatest  liability  to  malarious  poison  (paludal 
intoxication)  occurs  when  the  equilibrium  of  the  at- 
mosphere is  in  a  state  of  disturbance,  as  during  some 
two  hours  after  sunset,  and  two  before  sunrise. 
Within  these  intervals  troops  should  not  be  exer- 
cised nor  kept  fasting.  Breakfast  should  precede 
the  performance  of  any  morning  duties,  and  supper 
should  be  eaten  at  sunset. 

In  order  to  acclimate  an  army  with  as  little  sick- 
ness as  possible,  it  should  enter  the  foreign  clime  at 
that  season  of  the  year  which  can  most  gradually  in- 
troduce it  to  those  extremes  of  heat  or  moisture,  that 
mark  its  character.  By  doing  this,  all  suddenness 


GENERAL  PRESERVATION  OF  HEALTH.     85 

of  transition  is  avoided,  the  clothing  is  not  immediately 
obliged  to  be  changed,  nor  the  diet ;  the  system  gradu- 
ally accommodates  itself  to  the  change  in  functions  re- 
quired, and  the  sickiy  season,  when  it  does  come,  is  met 
by  constitutions  already  so  much  modified  as  to  have 
lost  much  of  their  impressibility  to  endemic  causes 
of  disease.  The  ratio  of  sickness  will  always  diminish 
in  proportion  to  the  degree  of  acclimation  attained. 

There  are  a  number  of  duties  occasionally  devolv- 
ing upon  soldiers  which,  from  the  infrequency  of  their 
occurrence,  are  peculiarly  distressing  to  those  who 
undertake  them.  Digging  trenches,  building  bridges 
and  causeways,  making  roads,  and  the  like,  impose 
severe  tasks  upon  soldier!.  Yet  these  duties  are  at 
all  times  indispensable  to  the  successful  passage  of  an 
army  through  an  enemy's  country,  and  they  must 
then  be  performed  at  any  and  every  hazard.  Their 
execution  involves  two  of  the  most  perilous  conditions 
to  health  possible,  in  the  form  of  great  fatigue  and  ex- 
posure to  terrene  exhalations.  Without  some  pre- 
cautionary measures,  this  kind  of  duty  affects  the 
health  of  the  soldier  more  than  any  other  single 
cause,  and  when  in  particular  the  task  is  performed 
in  a  climate  to  which  troops  are  not  indigenous,  visita- 
tions of  disease  may  be  speedily  expected. 

As  a  rule,  therefore,  whenever  troops  enter  a 
foreign  climate,*  and  until  some  considerable  time 

*  I  need  hardly  remark  that  our  Northern  troops,  in  passing 
now  no  farther  south  even  than  the  lower  Chesapeake,  will,  enter  a 
climate  entirely  foreign  to  their  constitutions,  and  that,  too,  at  a 
season  most  likely  to  impress  its  character  upon  them.  Thus, 


86          GENERAL   PRESERVATION   OF   HEALTH. 

has  elapsed,  they  should  not  be  called  upon  to  make 
excavations,  or  greatly  disturb  the  soil  in  parts  not 
inhabited,  or  already  brought  under  cultivation.  If 
it  becomes  necessary  to  order  such  labor  done,  na- 
tives, when  they  can  be  employed,  should  undertake 
the  task.  For  experience  proves  that  in  all  alluvial 
districts  the  disturbance  of  the  soil  for  the  first  time 
by  the  unacclimated,  is  sure  to  invite  an  attack  of 
malarious  fever.  But  where  natives  cannot  be  found 
to  do  the  work,  men  should  be  selected  who  have 
come  from  adjoining  districts,  the  chance  of  immunity 
always  diminishing  in  the  ratio  of  the  distance  of 
their  usual  habitations.* 

Whenever  troops  are  stationed  either  on  the  sea- 
board, or  in  malarious  districts,  their  diet  should  be 
increased  in  quantity  ;  overcoats  should  be  worn  at 
night,  when  on  guard ;  and  no  out-door  morning 

New  Englanders  and  New  Yorkers  will  have  traversed  from  five  to 
eight  degrees,  and  the  men  of  the  Middle  and  Western  States  from 
one  to  five  degrees.  From  certain  resemblances  in  soil  and  climate, 
it  is  probable  that  men  bred  in  the  great  valleys  of  the  Ohio  and 
Mississippi  (Missouri,  Kentucky,  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Ohio)  will 
be  less  affected  by  these  changes  than  those  from  our  Northern  sea- 
board States.  It  will  be  well  to  consider  these  things  in  garrison- 
ing posts  in  the  South,  particularly  in  the  low,  alluvial  regions 
bordering  on  the  sea ;  or  in  the  vicinity,  of  lagoons,  and  the  deltas 
of  great  rivers. 

*  Wherever  great  fatigue  and  continued  exposure  become  in- 
evitable in  malarious  districts,  it  might  even  be  well  to  anticipate 
attacks  of  intermittent  fever,  by  administering  to  those  who  are 
particularly  exposed,  a  one-grain  pill  of  the  Sulph.  Quinse  every 
morning  fasting.  M.  Du  Chaillu,  the  African  traveller,  assured 
me,  that,  by  following  this  course,  he  had  been  enabled  to  traverse 
the  m6st  malarious  intertropical  regions  with  comparative  im- 
punity. 


GENERAL   PRESERVATION   OF   HEALTH.          87 

duties  should  be  exacted  of  the  men  while  fasting. 
Coffee  should  be  dispensed  to  all  who  have  returned 
wet  and  fatigued  from  mounting  guard,  or  any  other 
protracted  exposure  at  night ;  the  great  object  being 
to  protect  them  against  repressions  of  circulation  due 
to  the  differences  in  temperature  between  midday 
and  midnight. 

Men,  passing  suddenly  from  a  northern  to  a  south- 
ern climate,  suffer  at  first  a  sort  of  general  erethism. 
Their  systems  are  surcharged  with  heat,  the  blood  is 
expanded,  and  there  is  fulness  of  the  capillary  circula- 
tion. If,  now,  they  are  exposed  after  nightfall  to 
heavy  dews  and  a  temperature  from  15°  to  30°  colder 
than  the  day,  it  is  easy  to  divine  what  must  happen 
to  systems  thus  highly  excited.  "  Cold,"  says  Dr. 
Mosely,  "  is  the  cause  of  almost  all  the  diseases  in 
hot  climates,  to  which  climate  alone  is  accessory." 
And  cold  acts  upon  the  nervous  system  precisely  as 
does  the  malarial  poison,  by  depressing  its  tone,  and 
lowering  the  functional  activity  of  the  large  organs. 
Whenever  soldiers  have  been  thus  circumstanced,  and 
an  incipient  chill  is  felt,  they  should  immediately,  on 
returning  to  their  quarters,  lie  down  with  additional 
covering  over  them,  and  endeavor  to  provoke  a  gentle 
perspiration.  The  sooner  this  is  done,  the  less  will 
be  their  liability  to  permanent  disease.  Every  hour 
of  omission  aggravates  the  character  of  the  disturb- 
ance, and  that  which  was  simply  a  slight  chill,  which 
a  cup  of  hot  coffee  or  a  thick  blanket  could  have 
dispelled,  may  soon  pass  into  a  form  of  obstinate  and 
complicated  fever. 


88     GENERAL  PKESEKVATION  OF  HEALTH. 

When  on  guard  at  night,  the  best  protection 
against  sluggishness  of  the  circulation  is  to  keep  the 
mind  active.  Be  wide  awake.  The  overcoat  imparts 
no  heat  to  the  body — it  only  serves  to  retain  that 
which  is  already  there.  The  generation  of  it  must 
come  from  within,  and  there  is  no  better  steam-engine 
for  the  human  body  than  an  active  and  thoroughly  self- 
possessed  mind,  determined,  by  a  concentration  of 
all  its  energies,  upon  the  task  before  it.  Men  ex- 
posed in  the  Arctic  regions,  never  freeze  to  death  so 
long  as  the  mind  is  active,  but  the  moment  it  goes 
asleep  the  body  becomes  fatally  chilled.  An  active 
mind  serves  also  to  repel  disease,  and  thus  to  preserve 
health.  It  is  the  conservator  of  the  equilibrium  of 
the  vital  forces,  and  regulates  the  measure  of  their 
activity. 

After  every  exposure  to  wet,  particularly  at  night, 
the  men  should  be  served  with  a  ration  of  hot  coffee, 
or  ginger  tea,  and  care  should  be  had  that  they  change 
themselves  so  as  to  sleep  in  dry  clothes.  And  owing 
to  the  difficulty  of  drying  clothing  in  a  soldier's  tent, 
each  company  should  set  apart  a  tent  for  this  express 
purpose.  The  noisome  smell,  and  the  dangerous 
consequences  to  health,  arising  from  keeping  wet 
clothes  saturated  with  organic  emanations  in  an  in- 
habited tent,  cannot  be  exaggerated  by  any  recital  of 
ours.  Proper  drying  quarters  should,  therefore,  be 
provided. 

Whenever  an  epidemic  declares  itself  in  camp  or 
at  a  post,  all  ordinary  precautions  must  be  doubled. 
Active  duties  must  be  diminished  in  their  duration, 


GENERAL  PRESERVATION  OF  HEALTH.    89 


fatigues  avoided,  periods  of  guard-mounting  lessened, 
and  modifications  made  in  the  dietary,  if  deemed  ne- 
cessary by  the  medical  officers.  A  sanitary  squad, 
under  the  command  of  a  surgeon's  mate,  should  be 
organized,  for  the  purpose^T  daily  inspecting  all  tents, 
huts,  barracks,  kitchens,'  wells,  and  sinks.  And  a 
daily  meeting  of  the  staff  and  medical  officers  should 
be  held,  to  hear  reports  upon  the  progress  of  the 
disease,  to  receive  suggestions,  and  exchange  opinions 
upon  its  origin,  history,  and  character,  and  to  pro- 
mulgate orders  for  its  speedy  control  and  eradica- 
tion. 

Skirmishers  are  often  absent  at  great  distances 
from  the  camp,  are  scattered  in  small  parties  over  a 
large  extent  of  territory,  and  cannot,  if  wounded, 
immediately  receive  that  medical  relief  which  their 
case  requires.  They  may  be  miles  away  from  the 
main  body,  their  own  surgeons  cannot  be  every- 
where at  hand  to  assist  them,  and  hours  may  elapse 
before  help  can  reach  them.  On  a  lone  mountain- 
side, in  a  swamp  or  a  thicket,  the  skirmisher  may 
fall  and  perish,  as  hundreds  have  before  him,  un- 
discovered and  unassisted. 

"  For  want  of  timely  aid 
Thousands  have  died  of  medicable  wounds." 

In  order  to  provide  against  these  contingencies, 
there  should,  to  each  party  of  sixteen  skirmishers,  be 
given  a  small  hospital  knapsack  containing  field  tour- 
niquets, lint,  and  bandages,  the  carrier  of  which 
should  be  instructed  how  to  use  them. 


90       INDIVIDUAL   PRESERVATION   OF   HEALTH. 


INDIVIDUAL    GUIDANCE. 

The  soldier,  like  the  sailor,  is  proverbially  care- 
less of  himself.  His  life,  he  appears  to  think,  be- 
longs to  no  one  but  the  state,  and  he  accordingly  sub- 
mits to,  whatever  disposition  of  it  she  may  make. 
But  although  it  be  true  that  the  soldier  does  not  own 
his  time,  and  when  under  orders  must  always  be 
ready,  it  does  not  follow  that  any  one  is  master  of 
his  body.  His  person  is  still,  within  the  limits  of 
discipline,  all  his  own.  And  his  duties  of  personal 
self-preservation  never  cease  but  with  life.  It  is  his 
duty  to  take  as  good  care  of  his  health  as  he  can ; 
to  be  cleanly,  temperate,  industrious,  and  moral,  be- 
cause he  is  the  custodian  of  his  country's  flag  and  of 
her  honor ;  and  must  vindicate,  by  the  uprightness 
of  his  character,  his  claim  to  be  considered  worthy 
of  defending  her. 

With  a  view  of  assisting  him  to  preserve  his 
health,  by  pointing  out  the  principal  sources  of  dan- 
ger to  which  he  is  exposed,  the  following  suggestions 
have  been  compiled. 

EXERCISE. 

After  violent  exercise,  avoid  lying  or  sitting  im- 
mediately, and  in  the  shade,  or  with  the  wind  at  your 
back.  Let  your  coat  remain  buttoned,  or  if  previ- 
ously open,  then  button  it.  Keep  in  motion  for  a 
little  w7hile,  and  out  of  the  sun,  gradually  cooling  offj 
and  finishing  by  washing  face,  neck,  hands,  and  arms 
in  cold  water.  All  who  have  witnessed  the  dangerous 


. 


INDIVIDUAL   PRESERVATION   OF   HEALTH.        91 

consequences  that  ever  attend  upon  sudden  checks  of 
perspiration,  whether  through  the  instrumentality  of 
air  or  the  agency  of  cold  water,  will  readily  appre- 
ciate the  language  of  the  poet  of  health. 

"  Hot  from  the  field,  indulge  not  yet  your  limbs 
In  wish'd  repose ;  nor  court  the  fanning  gale, 
Nor  taste  the  spring.     Oh !  by  the  sacred  tears 
Of  widows,  orphans,  mothers,  sisters,  wives, 
Forbear.     No  other  pestilence  has  driven 
Such  myriads  o'er  the  irremeable  deep." 

Drink  not,  then,  while  hot  and-  wearied,  on  the 
march,  from  any  stream,  however  tempting.  Rinse 
your  mouth,  wash  hands  and  face,  but  wait  until 
you  are  cool  before  drinking,  and  then  drink  but 
little.  In  fact,  the  less  water  one  drinks  on  a  march 
through  a  strange  country,  the  better.  Change 
of  water,  more  than  any  other  single  thing,  induces 
derangements  of  the  stomach  and  bowels,  and  to  guard 
against  it,  every  soldier  should  be  furnished  with  a 
bottle  of  vinegar,  a  few  drops  of  which  will  suffice  to 
correct  any  brackishness  or  liminess  of  water. 

But  a  far  better  thing  is  to  fill  the  canteen  before 
starting  with  half  coffee  and  water*  unsweetened, 
which,  when  drunk  cold  on  the  march,  is  the  best 
thirst-slaking  and  most  refreshing  beverage  in  the 
world.  If  coffee  is  not  agreeable,  tea  answers  just  as 
well.  Both  these  beverages  are  tonic,  stimulant,  and 
satisfying.  Tea  is  more  astringent  than  coffee,  and 

*  The  French  troops  depend  entirely  upon  their  bidon  of  weak 
coffee  on  the  march,  experience  having  convinced  them  that  most 
waters  are  "  flat,  stale,  and  unprofitable,"  by  the  side  of  this. 


92       INDIVIDUAL   PRESERVATION    OF   HEALTH. 

for  those  disposed  to  looseness  of  bowels,  is,  on  that 
account,  preferable. 

CLOTHING  AND  CLEANLINESS. 

Without  cleanliness  of  person  no  one  can  preserve 
good  health.  The  skin  being  both  a  breathing  as 
well  as  an  eliminating  organ,  requires  daily  airing. 
It  must  be  kept  clean  by  friction  as  well  as  by  fre- 
quent ablutions,  but  cleansing  the  skin  avails  little 
if  the  body-clothes  are  habitually  soiled.  For  what- 
ever is  eliminated  by  the  skin  and  absorbed  by  the 
clothing  (being  effete  animal  matter)  is  readily  de- 
composed by  the  heat  of  the  body,  and  becomes  pu- 
trid. The  necessity  for  changing  the  clothes  and 
washing  the  body  is  therefore  very  apparent.  It  is  a 
protection  to  health  in  the  sense  of  being  a  purifica- 
tion of  the  body. 

At  least  twice  a  week,  in  summer,  the  soldier, 
besides  his  daily  morning  ablutions  of  face,  neck, 
hands,  and  feet,  should  w^ash  his  entire  person.  Soap 
should  be  used  in  the  process.  In  winter,  once  a 
week  may  suffice. 

lie  should  never  sleep  at  night  in  the  flannel  shirt, 
drawers,  or  socks  worn  during  the  day,  but  should 
exchange  them  for  others  of  the  same  kind.  If  he  is 
called  in  the  night,  he  is  just  as  ready  with  the  shirt 
and  drawers  he  has  on,  as  he  would  have  been  with 
the  others.  At  morning  he  should  again  resume  the 
articles  put  off  at  night.  By  thus  changing  them 
morning  and  night,  his  body  receives  the  benefit  of 
an  air-bath,  and  both  his  day  and  nignt  garments 


INDIVIDUAL   PRESERVATION   OF   HEALTH.        93 

have  an  opportunity  to  be  aired,  which  should  be  done 
by  hanging  them  in  the  sun,  so  as  to  allow  a  circulation 
of  air  around  them.  These  may  appear  trifling 
things,  but  they  are  nevertheless  of  great  importance 
to  comfort  and  to  health,  as  all  will  find  who  once 
adopt  them.  A  pinch  of  salt  is  also  a  trifling  thing, 
and  yet  the  comfort  and  the  benefit  of  a  whole  meal 
may  depend  upon  it. 

Flannels  worn  in  this  way  need  not  be  changed 
oflener  than  once  a  week,  while,  when  worn  night  and 
day  uninterruptedly,  they  would  become  foul  and 
offensive  in  half  that  time. 

But  socks,  whether  woollen  or  cotton,  should  be 
changed  twice  a  week.  The  perspiration  of  the  feet 
renders  them  otherwise  intolerably  offensive,  inso- 
much that  the  soldier's  presence  may  become  insuf- 
ferable to  his  fellow-lodgers  at  night 

Avoid  all  sudden  checks  of  perspiration.  It  is 
better  to  perspire  than  to  shiver.  So  long  as  the 
skin  is  active  and  moist,  there  is  little  danger  to 
health — 

"  For  while  the  effluence  of  the  skill  maintains 
Its  native  measure,  the  pleuritic  spring 
Glides  harmless  by  ;  and  Autumn,  sick  to  death 
With  sallow  quartans,  no  contagion  breathes." 

When  mounting  guard  at  night  in  summer,  it  is 
better  to  wear  an  overcoat,  even  if  compelled  to  keep 
it  open,  than  to  get  chilled  by  going  without  it.  A 
chill  is  the  first  stage  of  every  kind  of  fever,  and  in 
southern  latitudes  is  particularly  to  be  dreaded. 

Even  if  not  so  commanded  by  his  superior  officer, 


94       INDIVIDUAL   PRESERVATION   OF   HEALTH. 

the  soldier  should  always  wear  flannel  next  the  skin. 
But  if  it  cannot  possibly  be  endured,  he  should  still 
wear  a  flannel  apron  over  the  stomach  and  abdomen, 
as  a  preventive  to  bowel  complaints. 

To  protect  himself  against  sunstroke,  the  Have- 
lock  cover  to  the  cap  should  be  worn,  or,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  this,  a  wet  sponge,  handkerchief,  a  few  large 
leaves  or  grass,  may  be  put  in  the  cap.  Abstinence 
from  spirituous  liquors  will  secure  the  soldier  against 
predisposition  to  sunstroke,  for  it  is  found  that  the 
intemperate  are  usually  the  first  victims. 

No  one  should,  on  any  account,  lie  in  wet  cloth- 
ing. Blankets  must  be  aired  at  morning,  like  every 
thing  else  that  has  been  worn,  and  if  wet  should  not 
be  used. 

When  straw  is  used  in  tents  for  bedding,  it  must 
be  daily  turned,  and  when  mouldy  instantly  thrown 
away. 

Let  there  be  kept  up  a  good  circulation  of  air 
throughout  the  night  in  the  tent,  by  leaving  the  door- 
way open.  If  the  rain  come  in  on  that  side,  shut  it, 
and  raise  a  part  of  the  tent  on  the  opposite  side. 
But  never  sleep  without  some  ventilating  orifice. 
Good  air  is  more  essential  than  good  food.  A  human 
being  consumes  about  18  pints  of  it  per  minute,  or 
nearly  two  hogsheads  and  a  half  per  hour ;  and  air 
once  expired  is  no  longer  fit  to  be  respired. 

A  small  trench  dug  around  the  tent  makes  a  good 
conduit  for  the  rain,  and  prevents  it  from  spreading 
over  the  surface  of  the  ground  ;  and  the  dryer  the 
ground  is  in  and  about  the  tent,  the  better  for  the 


INDIVIDUAL   PRESERVATION   OF   HEALTH.        05 

comfort  and  health  of  its  occupants.  For  this  pur- 
pose all  grass  should  be  plucked  out  as  closely  as 
possible,  and  not  suffered  to  decay,  as  it  will  from 
the  heat  of  bodies  lying  on  it.  As  elsewhere  said, 
the  proper  flooring  for  a  tent  is  an  India-rubber  blan- 
ket. If  the  government  does  not  furnish  one,  and  the 
soldier  can  afford  it,  he  should  provide  one  for  himself. 

DIET    AND    DIGESTION. 

Although  \he  soldier's  dietary  is  fixed  by  law, 
neither  his  appetite  nor  his  digestion  regulate  them- 
selves by  it.  They  ever  retain  their  own  character, 
and  suffer  or  flourish  according  to  the  degree  of 
compatibility  existing  between  them  and  his  food. 
It  is  true  that  all  men  need  good  food  and  well  cooked, 
but  all  men  do  not  need  the  same  quantity,  nor  to  be 
fed  the  same  number  of  times.  Hence,  rules  of 
quantity  and  hours  of  eating  are  made  to  suit  the 
average  of  mankind ;  and,  within  these  rules,  every 
individual  must,  by  a  proper  study  of  his  own  tem- 
perament and  wants,  guide  the  daily  conduct  of  his 
body. 

As  a  general  rule,  sameness  of  diet,  when  long 
continued,  weakens  digestion  in  all  men.  Therefore 
lot  there  be  some  variation  daily,  even  if  it  only  con- 
sists in  omitting  part  or  the  whole  of  any  article. 
The  stomach  will  relish  it  all  the  better  when  it  is 
again  resumed.  Thus,  soup  may  be  omitted  at  one 
dinner,  and  beef  at  another,  and  the  beef  may  be 
eaten  at  evening,  or,  better  still,  the  next  morning,  in 
lieu  of  a  ration  of  pork.  Always  save  any  surplus 


96        INDIVIDUAL   PRESERVATION   OF   HEALTH. 

beef  and  bread  in  your  haversack  against  a  time  of 
need.  It  is  more  nourishing,  more  strengthening,  and 
less  cloying  than  pork,  and  when  this  latter  happens 
to  be  the  ration  and  you  have  no  relish  for  it,  the 
bread  and  beef  will  serve  you  a  good  turn.  Never 
be  afraid  of  good  beef — it  is  the  best  foundation  on 
which  to  build  good  health. 

Avoid  fat  pork  as  much  as  possible  in  summer 
and  in  warm  latitudes.  It  disposes  to  bowel  com- 
plaints, and  should  never  be  made  a  staple  article  in 
any  dietary.  It  should  only  be  used  to  flavor  other 
articles,  or  to  fry  with.  Lean  salt  pork  (hams,  sides, 
or  shoulders)  is  not  open  to  the  same  objection. 

Beans,  unless  thoroughly  cooked,  are  only  fit  for 
horses.  When  half  cooked  they  will  provoke  indi- 
gestion and  diarrhoea  in  almost  any  one.  The  best 
preventive  against  them  in  such  a  state  is  to  let  them 
alone.  All  the  vinegar  and  pepper  you  can  put  on, 
will  not  render  them  digestible.  When  sound  and 
well  cooked,  however,  they  make  an  excellent  side 
dish ;  but  an  entire  meal  should  never  be  made  of 
them.  They  should  be  subordinated  to  meat,  bread, 
and  potatoes.  A  little  vinegar  assists  their  solution, 
and  pepper  corrects  their  tendency  to  produce  flat- 
ulence. 

Eat  your  bread  stale.  It  is  lighter  and  more 
digestible ;  you  will  need  less  to  satisfy  you,  and  it 
will  incommode  you  less,  whatever  the  quantity 
eaten.  Brown  bread  contains  more  nourishment  than 
white,  and  is,  besides,  slightly  laxative.  Some  of  the 
strongest  men  in  the  world  are  fed  on  brown  bread. 


INDIVIDUAL    PRESERVATION    OF   HEALTH.        97 

With  rice,  fat  of  some  kind  should  be  used  as  a 
flavorer.  All  mucilaginous  articles  of  food — veal, 
pork,  beans,  and  peas — should  have  a  little  vinegar 
added  to  them  as  a  dressing,  also  pepper.  In  sum- 
mer, vegetable  acids,  like  vinegar  or  sorrel,  are  ben- 
eficial in  small  quantities. 

Besides  meat,  vegetables  are  necessary  to  health. 
Any  succulent  roots,  such  as  are  put  in  soup,  should 
be  partaken  of,  but  always  as  side  dishes,  and  never 
as  staples.  Thus  with  beef,  carrots  or  parsnips,  either 
stewed  or  boiled,  should  be  partaken  of.  Onions  are 
also  beneficial,  and  should  be  eaten.  They  are  stim- 
ulating and  somewhat  medicinal. 

Dried  apples  and  peaches,  when  stewed,  are  de- 
sirable articles,  and  serve  a  good  purpose  in  the 
system ;  being  slightly  laxative  as  well  as  refreshing. 
They  should  be  flavored  with  a  little  ginger  or  clove, 
and  kept  as  a  valuable  store  to  be  used  occasionally. 

Ardent  spirits  are  not  necessary  to  health  in  the 
healthy.  All  authorities  agree  that  their  use  is  per- 
nicious in  warm  latitudes,  and  the  soldier  is  every- 
where found  to  be  better  without  them.  Their  place, 
properly  speaking,  is  among  hospital  stores.  There 
they  should  remain,  and  be  dispensed  only  under  the 
advice  of  medical  officers.  Abstinence  from  the  use  of 
spirits,  when  in  the  South,  will  be  found  a  great  pre- 
ventive against  diseases  of  the  stomach  and  bowels. 

PASSES. 

The  privilege  of  a  pass  is  too  often  a  privilege  to 
the  grave.  The  errors  in  diet,  and  the  irregularities 


93       INDIVIDUAL   PRESERVATION   OF   HEALTH. 

in  bodily  conduct,  committed  by  soldiers  when  al- 
lowed to  roam  through  a  town,  are  so  common,  and 
so  speedily  visited  by  physical  penalties,  as  to  plainly 
indicate  that  this  privilege  is  a  dangerous  favor  to 
grant.  It  rarely  happens  that  the  hospitals  do  not 
attest,  on  the  morrow,  the  consequences  of  this  much 
sought-for  dispensation.  Lounging  all  day  from  shop 
to  shop,  eating  sweets  here,  drinkhig  spirits  and  acids 
there,  gorging  themselves  with  all  manner  of  incom- 
patible edibles,  and  drinking  too  often  of  spirits  to 
excess,  together  with  exposure  to  sun  and  dew  ;  these 
are  the  parent  causes  of  the  mischief  which  so  often 
attends  upon  "  passes."  Were  men  but  to  reflect  a 
moment  upon  the  line  of  conduct  they  so.  frequently 
pursue  on  these  occasions,  common  sense  would  warn 
them  of  the  accidents  to  health  which  they  thus  vol- 
untarily court.  It  is  in  the  excesses  committed  both 
in  eating  and  drinking  that  lies  the  mischief.  For, 
would  soldiers  only  behave  themselves  out  of  the 
camp  as  in  it ;  were  they  to  eat  at  the  same  hours, 
and  in  no  greater  quantity,  at  the  town  table  than  at 
the  mess  table ;  would  they  avoid  promiscuous  drink- 
ing, and  take  spirits  if  they  will,  only  with  their  hol- 
iday dinner — they  would  not  find  themselves  groaning 
the  next  day  under  the  doctor's  care.  Temperance 
in  all  things,  imprudence  in  none,  should  be  their 
rule  and  shield. 

INDIGESTION. 

Whenever  an  attack  of  indigestion  is  experienced, 
accompanied  by  nausea,  make  no  attempt  to  check 


INDIVIDUAL   PRESERVATION   OF   HEALTH.        (J(J 

this  latter  with  brandy  or  any  other  stimulant,  until 
you  have  first  aided  the  stomach  in  throwing  off  its 
offending  contents  ;  when  this  has  been  fully  done  by 
vomiting,  then,  and  not  till  then,  are  stimulants  al- 
lowable. Abstinence,  rest,  sleep,  and  small  draughts 
of  cold  water,  are  better  sedatives  to  an  irritated 
stomach  than  either  brandy  or  whiskey. 

If  diarrhoea  *  supervene,  take  no  spirituous  li- 
quors to  check  it.  Let  the  bowels  first  rid  them- 
selves of  any  offending  matter ;  after  which  rest, 
extra  warmth  on  the  surface,  so  as  to  induce  perspir- 
ation— an  almost  total  abstinence  from  liquids,  espe- 
cially coffee,  avoiding  fat  meat,  beans,  &e.,  will 
generally  produce  relief— within  twenty-four  hours. 
If  pain  and  discharges  still  continue,  report  yourself 
on  the  sick  list. 

Constipation  is  never  to  be  so  much  dreaded  as 
diarrhoea,  because  it  is  always  more  or  less  under 
our  control. f  Diminishing  the  quantity  of  salt  meat 
daily  consumed,  and  increasing  that  of  vegetables ; 
avoiding  an  over  use  of  pepper,  drinking  a  tumbler 
of  cold  water  fasting  in  the  morning,  soliciting  nature 
at  regular  hours,  and  not  omitting  to  attend  to  her 
calls  when  made ;  an  observance  of  all  these  particu- 

*  Wherever  there  is  an  habitual  disposition  to  looseness  of 
bowels,  much  benefit  is  often  derived  from  a  simple  abstinence 
from  liquids.  A  dry,  unirritating  diet,  has  been  known  to  pro- 
duce an  entire  change  of  this  condition  and  habit  of  the  bowels. 

t  Neglected  constipation  is  very  apt  to  induce  piles.  In  such 
cases,  the  best  treatment  is  the  application  of  a  soft  rag,  wetted  in 
cold  water,  to  the  fundament,  immediately  after  an  evacuation. 
Wash  the  parts,  carefully  push  back  any  protruding  pile,  and  on 
going  to  bed,  lay  the  wet  rag  on,  and  keep  it  there  all  night. 


100    INDIVIDUAL   PRESERVATION    OF   HEALTH. 

lars  will  most  generally  afford  relief.  But  if  much 
headache  accompany  either  constipation  or  diarrhoea, 
the  proper  course  is  to  report  yourself  at  once  to  the 
surgeon. 

Taking  cold,  as  it  is  commonly  designated,  is 
usually  the  result  of  unequal  exposure  of  different 
portions  of  the  body  to  the  action  of  a  low  temper- 
ature. A  man  in  a  state  of  perspiration  takes  off  his 
hat  and  fans  himself,  or  remains  in  a  current  of  air 
bareheaded,  or  removes  his  cravat ;  in  a  short  time 
he  discovers  himself  to  be  hoarse ;  he  sneezes  and 
gives  other  indications  of  a  cold  in  the  head.  An- 
other, under  similar  circumstances,  exposes  a  larger 
surface  of  his  person,  and  gets  a  more  extensive  cold. 
In  either  case,  a  state  of  partial  congestion  of  the 
lining  membrane  of  nose,  throat,  and  possibly  lungs, 
has  happened.  The  capillary  circulation,  while  in  a 
state  of  great  activity,  has  become  suddenly  arrested 
by  the  constricting  effects  of  a  low  temperature  upon 
the  walls  of  its  blood-vessels.  What  is  the  conse- 
quence ?  First,  a  slight  chill ;  secondly,  fever.  Now, 
the  remedy  is  a  plain  one,  and  consists  in  re-estab- 
lishing the  activity  of  the  skin.  First  of  all  things, 
let  the  patient  perspire,  and  the  sooner  he  does  so, 
the  shorter  will  be  the  duration  of  the  disorder. 
After  the  cold  has  "  settled,"  it  will  be  beyond  his 
reach,  and  the  surgeon  will  then  need  to  interpose 
his  skill.  But  until  that  time  a  man  may,  by  early 
dieting,  total  abstinence  from  liquids  of  any  kind  for 
a  day  or  two,  and  dressing  warmly,  recover  himself 
without  medication.  It  only  requires,  immediate 


INDIVIDUAL    PRESERVATION    OF   HEALTH.      101 

action,  and  perseverance  in  carrying  out  its  details, 
to  insure  success.  Napoleon  used  to  treat  his  colds 
by  fasting  all  day,  and  riding  on  horseback ;  two 
most  excellent  means  for  stimulating  the  circulation, 
and  keeping  up  a  constant  moisture  of  the  skin. 

When  the  feet  become  tender  from  excessive  per- 
spiration— to  prevent  which,  care  should  be  had  on 
a  march  to  wash  them  night  and  morning  in  cold 
water, — bathing  with  spirits  will  harden  and  relieve 
them.  This  is  usually  done  by  pouring  spirits  into 
the  boots  wThen  on.  But  a  better  and  a  cheaper  rem- 
edy is  good  beef  suet,  which,  when  applied  freely, 
checks  inordinate  perspiration,  keeps  them  soft,  and 
prevents  cracks  and  chafings.  Beef  suet  should  al- 
ways be  included  among  a  soldier's  stores. 

A  veil,  and  a  small  bottle  of  camphorated  oil  for 
anointing  exposed  parts,  will  answer  a  good  purpose 
to  the  soldier  in  southern  latitudes,  by  protecting 
him  at  night  from  musquitoes,  and  those  other  in- 
numerable insects  that  "  mostly  do  congregate"  there. 

TREATMENT    OF    WOUNDS    BEFORE  THE  ARRIVAL    OF    THE 
SURGEON. 

As  more  or  less  time  must  always  elapse  between 
the  reception  of  a  wound,  and  the  attendance  of  a 
surgeon,  it  will  be  well  for  every  one  to  understand 
in  what  way  temporary  relief  can  always  be  afforded 
to  the  suffering. 

Every  soldier  should  carry  about  his  person  a 
large,  stout  handkerchief.  This  will,  in  an  emer- 
gency, answer  as  a*  tourniquet,  a  bandage,  or  a  sling 


102    INDIVIDUAL    PRESERVATION    OF   HEALTH. 

for  a  wounded  arm.  A  tourniquet  is  a  strap  made 
from  any  kind  of  material,  and  twisted  tightly  about 
a  limb  to  cheek  bleeding.  A  handkerchief,  or  a  piece 
of  rope,  is  the  readiest  thing  out  of  which  to  impro- 
vise a  field-tourniquet.  In  order  to  apply  it,  place 
the  strap  around  the  limb  loosely,  and  tie  it  in  a  hard 
knot.  Now  bring  the  knot  (which,  if  possible,  should 
have  a  little  pad  of  cloth  under  it)  directly  over  the 
wound  ;  thrust  a  stick  between  the  strap  and  the 
limb  on  the  side  opposite  to  the  wound,  and  twist  it 
around  and  around  until  the  bleeding  stops,  and  then 
confine  it. 

Where  the  cut  is  large  and  gaping,  first  observe 
whether  the  bleeding  is  continuous  or  by  intermit- 
tent jets  ;  if  the  former,  then  veins  alone  are  wounded, 
and  the  tourniquet  should  be  applied  below  the  wound, 
but  as  near  its  edge  as  possible.  Where,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  bleeding  is  by  intermittent' jets,  then  an 
artery  is  wounded,  and  the  tourniquet  should  be  ap- 
plied above  the  wound  ;  that  is  to  say,  between  it  and 
the  heart*  Never  pour  spirits  of  any  kind  upon  a 
bleeding  wound.  It  does  no  good,  and  only  serves 
to  irritate  and  to  inflame  it.  Wash  out  all  dirt  from 
it  with  pure  cold  water,  bring  the  edges  as  near  to- 
gether as  you  can,  and  apply  the  tourniquet  as  above 
directed. 

Whenever  any  one  has  fainted  from  loss  of  blood, 
do  not  raise  him  up  suddenly  on  any  account.  Raise 
his  head  slightly  and  slowly,  if  desirous  to  give  him 
a  restorative  ;  but  never  raise  his  chest  until  he  has 
fairly  "  come  to,"  and  breathes  deeply.  Before  try- 


INDIVIDUAL,   PRESERVATION    OF   HEALTH.      103 

ing  to  restore  him,  it  is  wise  first  to  check  his  bleed- 
ing, ast  during  faintness  the  blood  almost  ceases 
flowing,  and  wounds  can  then  be  more  easily  at- 
tended to.  In  transporting  him  to  the  ambulance, 
and  while  in  it,  keep  him  horizontal,  and  free  from 
sudden  motion. 

A  wounded  man  is  always  thirsty,  and  then  he 
needs,  not  spirits,  but  cold  water ;  give  him  his  choice 
in  this  particular,  and  you  will  see  that  water,  water, 
is  the  unfailing^  request. 

Whenever  any  penetrating  wound  of  the  chest  is 
unaccompanied  by  external  bleeding,  and  yet  blood 
is  coughed  up,  and  suffocation  seems  at  hand,  keep 
the  chest  erect,  fan  the  patient,  cover  the  wound 
closely  with  a  pad  wet  in  cold  water,  and  give  him 
small  sips  of  spirit  and  water. 

Whenever  joints  are  wounded,  keep  them  in  po- 
sition, and  free  from  motion,  by  wrapping  a  wet  ban- 
dage tightly  about  them  ;  and  if  any  small,  flat  pieces 
of  wood  can  be  found,  use  them  as  splints,  placing 
one  on  either  side  of  the  joint,  and  tightly  bandaging 
it.  In  this  way  much  pain  may  be  avoided  from 
muscular  contraction,  and  even  lockjaw  be  averted. 

In  all  large  wounds  of  the  abdomen,  particularly 
those  involving  protrusion  of  the  bowels,  keep  the 
person  lying  down.  Cover  the  wound,  and  place  a 
bandage  around  the  body  to  prevent  motion  of  the 
bowels. 

In  wounds  of  the  head,  cold  applications  are  al- 
ways beneficial.  Put  on  a  wet  pad,  and  a  tight  ban- 
dage over  it. 


104    INDIVIDUAL    PRESERVATION    OF   HEALTH. 

Let  the  wounded  always  be  handled  carefully 
and  tenderly,  avoiding  all  suddenness  of  motion  in 
transporting  them,  and  making  every  provision  for 
their  comfort. 

THE    THROAT    AND    VOICE    IN    OFFICERS. 

Officers,  from  a  protracted  use  of  the  voice  in  an 
unnatural  key  and  in  a  dusty  atmosphere,  are  often 
troubled  with  irritation  of  the  throat,  which  threatens 
serious  damage  to  the  voice.  I  have  no  doubt,  also, 
that  smoking  induces  a  change  in  the  follicles  of  the 
mucous  membrane,  whereby  its  secretions  are  greatly 
altered,  and  a  pre-disposition  to  roughness  and  huski- 
ness  of  voice  is  engendered.  That  pre-disposition 
can  be  eradicated  only  with  the  habit  creating  it. 
But  during  its  prevalence,  any  extra  effort  to  clear 
the  voice,  and  to  push  it  beyond  its  natural  key  will 
only  result  in  producing  chronic  irritations  of  the 
throat.  To  avoid  this,  the  voice  should  never  be 
strained.  By  gradual  efforts  in  the  open  air  it  can  be 
greatly  increased  in  volume.  Should  irritation,  how- 
ever, manifest  itself,  it  will  be  well  to  frequently 
gargle  the  throat  with  cold  water ;  or,  if  that  be  not 
sufficient,  the  addition  of  a  few  grains  of  tannin  will 
impart  an  astringent  character  to  it,  generally  desir. 
able  in  relaxed  states  of  those  parts.  A  good  prepa- 
ration for  those  who  are  habitually  troubled  with 
irritation  of  the  throat  is,  a  solution  of  tannin  in 
glycerine  (two  scruples  to  an  ounce.)  By  painting 
the  throat  with  this,  which  is  neither  irritating  nor 
corrosive,  great  relief  will  often  be  obtained. 


CHAPTEE    X. 

ON   HOSPITALS. 

HOSPITALS  are  among  the  indispensable  necessities 
of  an  army.  Without  them  no  force  could  be  main- 
tained in  the  field ;  for  the  gallant  men  who  flock  be- 
neath the  standard  of  their  country  would  be  demor- 
alized, and  dispersed  after  the  first  battle,  by  witness- 
ing the  unrelieved  sufferings  and  the  merciless  sacri- 
fice of  their  fellow-soldiers.  If  it  be  true,  as  Homer 
has  sung,  that 

"  A  good  physician,  skilled  our  wounds  to  heal, 
Is  more  than  armies  to  the  public  weal," 

it  is  equally  true  that  in  an  army  the  "  good  physi- 
cian "  is  powerless  to  treat  wounds  and  diseases  with- 
out a  hospital  in  \v  hich  to  place  his  patients. 

But  observation  has  shown  that  while  hospitals 
are  ever  instituted  to  alleviate  suffering  and  to  pro- 
mote good,  they  have,  in  too  many  instances,  failed 
to  accomplish  either  object,  and  on  the  contrary  been 
instrumental  in  doin<j  much  harm.  The  bitter  ex- 


106  ON   HOSPITALS. 

perience  of  Sir  John  Pringle  in  the  campaigns  of  the 
British  army  during  the  last  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century  led  him  to  say  that  "  hospitals  are  among  the 
chief  causes  of  mortality  in  armies."  This  truth  has 
had,  unfortunately,  to  be  recognized  even  in  our  own 
day,  but  with  this  difference  that  we  not  only  know 
whence  comes  this  fearful  mortality  of  hospitals,  but 
have  practically  demonstrated  the  fact  that  it  can  be 
diminished  by  over  one-half.  In  the  general  hospital 
at  Scutari  during  the  first  part  of  the  Crimean  war, 
and  which  was  very  much  over-crowded,  two  out  of 
every  jive  patients  died,  the  mortality  averaging 
about  42.7  per  cent,  on  the  admissions.  In  the  hos- 
pital-tents, on  the  contrary,  the  mortality  was  only 
about  half  that,  showing  conclusively  the  advantage 
to  be  in  favor  of  small-rooms,  and  fewer  patients. 

One  of  the  principal  causes  of  insalubrity  in  all 
hospitals  is  evidently  the  deterioration  of  the  air  due 
to  the  assembling  of  a  large  number  of  sick  in  any 
one  apartment.  In  former  days  it  was  the  fashion  to 
have  large  wards,  which,  good  enough  in  themselves, 
were  yet  entirely  robbed  of  their  advantages  by  over- 
crowding them  with  patients.  Thus  a  writer,  speak- 
ing of  the  Hotel  Dieu,  at  Paris,  in  1778,  says,  that  in 
some  wards  there  were  from  500  to  800  patients,  and 
in  each  of  the  large  beds  (52  inches  wide)  from  4  to  6 
occupants  !  There  was  no  classification  of  diseases 
either,  but  all  were  promiscuously  commingled  !  It 
is  needless  to  say  that  epidemics  constantly  raged  in 
those  wards,  or  that  the  mortality  was  exceedingly 
high.  No  amount  of  ventilation,  in  fact,  short  of 


ON    HOSPITALS.  107 

tearing  down  the  walls,  could  have  relieved  them  of 
their  pestiferous  atmosphere. 

The  first  and  great  requisite  of  all  hospitals  is  a 
constant  supply  of  pure,  fresh  air,  brought  directly 
into  each  wcfrd,  without  passing  through  any  room, 
corridor,  or  passage-way. 

The  sick  require  a  more  rapid  change  of  air  than 
the  well.  Their  emanations,  always  more  or  less 
offensive,  serve,  when  commingled  in  the  atmosphere 
of  a  ward,  greatly  to  depress  the  vital  energies  of 
each  other ;  and  thus  a  common  retardation  of  recov- 
ery ensues,  even  if  nothing  worse  happens.  The 
offensiveness  of  the  dejections  in  certain  diseases,  and 
of  all  discharging  wounds  in  general,  requires  that 
military  hospitals  should  beyond  all  others  be  well 
ventilated.  And,  indeed,  unless  this  be  done  they  are 
worse  than  useless,  because  they  become  simply  foci 
of  purulent  infection  to  all  their  inmates.  It  would 
be  far  better  to  treat  a  wounded  man  out  of  doors, 
and  with  nothing  but  a  blanket  over  him  for  a  tent, 
than  to  subject  him  to  an  atmosphere  which  is  very 
sure  to  develop  gangrene.  Besides  over-crowding, 
which,  as  we  have  elsewhere  seen,  is  so  fruitful  a 
source  of  increased  mortality  in  hospitals,  the  external 
air  may  from  various  causes  be  vitiated,  so  as  to  pro- 
duce analogous  results;  The  position  of  the  building 
with  reference  to  sewers,  marshes,  stagnant  streams, 
and  the  course  of  prevailing  winds;  or  carelessness 
in  the  administration  of  its  out-buildings,  sinks,  wash 
and  cook  houses,  will  all  play  an  important  part  in 
determining  the  health  and  chances  of  recovery  of  its 


108  ON   HOSPITALS. 

inmates.  Miss  Nightingale  relates  that  in  the  hos- 
pital at  Scutari  the  mortality  rose 

From          ....     17.9  in  Dec. 

To 32.1  in  Jan. 

And 42.7  in  Feb. 

although  the  wards  were  not  over-crowded,  but  dead 
dogs  and  horses  had  been  lying  for  some  time  in  its 
yard  !  At  the  Massachusetts  General  Hospital  last 
year,  gangrene  developed  itself  immediately  upon  the 
opening  of  the  mouth  of  a  sewer  in  its  vicinity.  The 
disease  had  never  been  previously  known  there.  In 
all  hospitals  situated  in  the  populous  parts  of  cities, 
the  treatment  of  certain  surgical  diseases,  is  attended 
with  much  more  uncertainty,  and  the  percentage  of 
recoveries  is  much  smaller,  than  in  suburban  or  rural 
hospitals.  These  facts  show  conclusively  the  im- 
mense influence  which  locality  alone  exercises  upon 
the  value  of  a  hospital ;  for,  unlike  other  and  merely 
architectural  defects,  this  one  is  irremediable. 

The  opinion  is  daily  gaining  ground  that  small 
pavilion-hospitals  are  better  than  large  buildings  with 
many  stories.  The  number  of  human  beings  who  can 
with  safety  inhabit  a  given  area  of  ground  is  limited, 
and  although  stories  upon  stories  may  be  built  and 
tenanted,  yet  the  law  of  nature  is  not  thereby  changed. 
As  long  ago  as  Hunter's  day  it  was  observed  that  the 
mortality  in  the  upper  wards,  all  other  things  being 
equal  exceeded  that  of  the  lower  ones ;  and  the  in- 
ference was  thence  drawn  that  there  may  be  over- 


ON    HOSPITALS.  100 


crowding  as  well  by  piling  wards  over  each  other,  as 
by  overfilling  any  one  ward.  In  recently  constructed 
European  hospitals  they  have  acted  upon  this  sug- 
gestion by  extending  their  area,  and  diminishing  their 
altitude.  This  lightens  the  duties  of  the  service  very 
much,  by  bringing  so  many  various  rooms  upon  the 
same  floor.  Convalescents  also  can  move  about  more 
easily,  and  having  no  high  stair-cases  either  to  descend 
or  to  climb,  do  not  require  so  much  personal  attend- 
ance. In  the  cases  of  crippled  men  it  becomes  of 
great  advantage,  in  allowing  them  to  take  short  walks 
outside  of  the  wards  proper,  to  sun  and  air  them- 
selves in  tho  grounds,  and  to  be  near  their  own 
quarters  in  case  of  faintness,  or  weariness. 

Next  to  good  locality,  hospitals  need  abundance 
of  sunlight  in  all  their  wards ;  and  it  is  unnecessary 
to  explain  why,  because  of  the  universal  knowledge 
of  the  benefits  accruing  to  mind  and  body  from  the 
daily  and  direct  influences  of  sunshine.  Wards  must 
be  so  constructed  that  the  sun  may  be  able  to  shine 
in  them  during  some  portion  of  the  day. 

Deficiency  of  space,  for  the  numbers  contained  and 
the  successful  performance  of  the  various  hospital 
services,  is  another  evil  to  be  guarded  against. 
While  overcrowding  relates  more  particularly  to  the 
condition  of  wards,  deficiency  of  space  includes  the 
commingling  in  proximity  of  duties  which,  by  reason 
of  the  noises  produced  by  them,  or  the  smells  evolved, 
should  be  kept  at  a  distance  from  the  sick.  Thus, 
the  kitchen,  the  wash-rooms,  and  store-rooms  should 
not  be  in  contiguity  to  the  wards.  The  smells  of  the 
7 


110  ON    HOSPITALS. 

one,  and  the  noises  of  the  other,  would  both  disturb 
and  distress  patients.  In  the  wards,  beds  should  be 
at  least  three  feet  apart,  so  as  to  admit  of  a  small  stand 
or  table  between  them. 

Ventilation  is,  after  all,  the  great  desideratum  in 
all  hospitals.  Plenty  of  air  and  a  constant  renewal 
of  it,  is  what  the  sick  must  have.  The  size  of  the 
wards  should  be  so  regulated  as  to  secure  to  each 
patient  from  1,000  to  1,500  cubic  feet  of  air,  with 
ventilation  adequate  to  supplying  him  with  60  cubic 
feet  of  fresh  air  per  hour.  This  air,  as  before  said, 
should  come  directly  into  the  ward,  and  without  first 
passing  through  any  corridors,  rooms,  or  passage- 
ways. Every  such  channel  of  ingress  is  more  or  less 
contaminating  and  therefore  objectionable. 

Beds. — The  best  beds  for  hospitals  are  hair- 
mattr asses,  which  arc  always  smooth,  soft,  and 
springy.  Straw  is  cold  and  hard,  and  wholly  unfit 
for  the  sick  to  lie  on.  It  is  not  advisable  to  place 
beds  against  dead  walls,  as  more  or  less  moisture  is 
always  emitted  by  them.  The  current  of  air  flowing 
along  their  sides  is  cooler,  denser,  and  therefore  ob- 
jectionable as  a  local  atmosphere  for  the  sick.  Nor 
should  beds  be  placed  directly  opposite  to  windows. 
Of  these  last  there  should  be  enough  to  have  one  win- 
dow between  every  two  beds. 

Walls. — The  walls  of  hospitals  should  be  made 
of  materials  that  are  not  absorbent ;  hard  finish 
painted  with  some  neutral  tint  is  best.  But  in  hos- 
pitals hastily  constructed  and  intended  only  to  be 
temporary,  such  precautions  cannot  always  be  taken. 


ON   HOSPITALS.  Ill 

They  are  often  shanties  or  huts,  hastily  put  up  with 
boards  and  unsusceptible  of  more  perfect  finish.  But 
even  in  such  cases  protection  may  be  obtained  by 
thoroughly  washing  them  over,  walls  and  ceiling, 
with  some  neutral  tint.  TFAite-wash  is  too  glaring  to 
the  eyes,  and  a  mellower  tint  is  better.  The  process 
stiould  be  occasionally  repeated,  taking  advantage  of  an 
opportunity  when  the  sick  can  be -removed  to  another 
ward.  It  should  never  be  done  while  they  are  in  it. 

Ceilings  should  be  high,  the  higher  the  better ; 
but  never  less  than  12  feet.  The  bedsteads  of  iron ; 
the  furniture  of  hard  wood,  and  the  utensils  of  glass 
and  earthen. 

One  nurse  to  every  ten  bedsteads,  and  one  surgeon 
with  two  assistants  to  every  fifty  patients,  seems 
about  as  little  as  will  suffice. 

The  best  size  for  wards  on  the  score  of  cleanliness, 
ventilation,  and  facility  of  service  is  that  containing 
about  20  beds. 

List  of  Hospital  and  Field  Supplies  for  the  Side  and 
Wounded,  as  Recommended  by  the  N.  Y.  Medical 
Helief  Association. 
1.    BANDAGES. — Assortment    and    proportionate 

numbers  of  each  variety  required  : — 


1 

dozen, 

1 

inch  wide, 

1 

yard 

long. 

2 

dozen, 

2 

inches  wide, 

3 

yards 

long. 

2 

u 

2i 

«         u 

3 

a 

u 

1 

« 

3 

«         « 

4 

" 

" 

* 

it 

31. 

«         « 

5 

« 

u 

112  ON   HOSPITALS. 

2.  Lint — Scraped  and  ravelled,  in  equal  propor- 
tions. 

3.  Old  linen  and  cotton  cloth,  without  selvedge  or 
seams,  for  compresses. 

4.  Ring  pads  and  cushions. 

5.  Cotton  batting  and  cotton  wadding  ;  fine  flax 
and  sponges. 

6.  Red  flannel  in  the  piece. 

7.  Bookbinders'  boards  for  splints  ;  pieces  18  by 
4  inches. 

8.  Saddlers'   silk    for   ligatures ;    wax,  pins,  and 
small  pin-cushions. 

9.  Sewing  needles,  assorted  in  cases ;  linen  thread, 
tape,  and  sc-issors. 

10.  Adhesive   plaster,    camel-hair   pencils,    oiled 
silk,    oiled    muslin,    india-rubber   and   gutta   percha 
cloths,  in  the  piece. 

11.  Wrapping-paper. 

12.  Cotton  shirts,  drawers,  and  slippers. 

13.  Sheets,  4  feet  wide  and  6  feet  long. 

14.  Bed-sacks,  3  feet  wide  and  6  feet  long. 

15.  Pillow-sacks  and  towels. 

16.  Hospital  knapsacks. 

17.  Field  stretchers. 

18.  Eye-shades  of  green  silk. 

19.  Lanterns. 

20.  Bed  pans  and  urinals,  metallic  ones  preferred. 

21.  Dressed  sheep-skins. 


ON   HOSPITALS.  113 


FIELD    HOSPITALS. 

Field  hospitals  or  ambulances  are  a  part  of  the 
necessary  equipment  of  armies.  They  are  of  two 
kinds,  either  stationary  or  flying.  The  permanent  or 
stationary  ambulance  is  located  at  some  distance 
from  the  field  of  battle  and  out  of  harm's  way  ;  while 
the  flying  ambulance  follows  the  regiment  into  bat- 
tle, and  affords  provisional  succor  to  the  wounded 
until  they  can  be  transported  to  the  stationary  hos- 
pital. 

As  army  regulations  prescribe  the  details  .of  ar- 
rangement for  this  class  of  hospitals,  little  need  be 
said  on  the  subject.  Their  temporary  character,  too, 
removes  them  from  the  necessity  of  those  hygienic 
observances  so  indispensable  in  the  construction  of 
permanent  hospitals. 

The  propriety  of  localizing  the  stationary  ambu- 
lance near  a  stream  of  water,  and  of  designating  its 
location  by  a  flag  which  can  be  plainly  seen,  will 
readily  occur  to  every  surgeon.  What  is  chiefly 
wanted  also,  is  a  sufficient  corps  of  hospital-dressers,  to 
relieve  the  surgeon  from  all  duty  but  that  of  ope- 
rating. 

In  most  of  our  volunteer  regiments  there  is  plain- 
ly an  inadequacy  of  medical  assistance.  One  surgeon 
and  mate  are  not  enough  to  perform  successfully  tho 
ambulance  service  of  a  whole  regiment.  More  assist- 
ants are  needed,  otherwise  you  will  cripple  the  sur- 
geon in  times  of  pressing  want  by  taking  away  his 
mate  to  attend  the  flying  ambulance.  This  certainly 


114:        .  ON    HOSPITALS. 

is  jeopardizing  the  lives  of  the  wounded  in  a  most  rep- 
rehensible manner.  "  Considering  how  many  young 
medical  men  there  are  who  thirst  for  an  opportunity 
as  well  to  serve  their  country  and  humanity,  as  to 
perfect  themselves  in  surgical  knowledge,  we  cannot 
feel  that  the  state  could  do  our  brave  volunteers  a 
more  signal  service  than  to  enlarge  the  medical  staff 
of  our  various  regiments  to  an  extent  commensurate 
with  what,  it  strikes  us,  must  eventually  become 
among  the  most  prominent  necessities  of  the  medical 
service  in  our  army.  All  will  agree,  at  least,  in  the 
fact  that  the  medical  assistance  hitherto  provided  to 
meet  the  exigencies  of  the  terrible  conflict  that  is  im- 
pending, is  not  adequate  to  the  probable  necessities 
of  the  army,  and  that  in  no  respect  could  greater 
service  be  rendered  our  regiments  than  by  the  or- 
ganization and  instruction  of  a  sufficient  number  of 
good  ambulance  corps."  * 

*   "  War  and  Medicine,"   an   article  by  the   author,  in  the 
American  Medical  Times  of  May  4,  1861.  , 


APPENDIX. 


FOOD. 

THE  duties  of  a  soldier  requiring  a  great  expenditure 
of  muscular  force,  his  diet  should  be  selected  from 
among  those  articles  which  are  richest  in  nutritious 
elements.  This  fact  being  admitted,  the  next  necessi- 
ty to  be  provided  for  is  that  of  regulating  his  meal- 
times so  as  to  avoid  protracted  fasts,  and,  more  impor- 
tant still,  to  avoid  making  demands  upon  his  strength 
during  such  moments.  All  human  power  has  its  lim- 
its, within  which  it  may  be  educated  to  do  much,  but 
beyond  which  it  cannot  be  made  to  go  without  dan- 
ger. In  the  strongest  as  well  as  the  weakest  man, 
fatigue  superadded  to  fasting  is  an  invitation  to  dis- 
ease. Nor  will  doubling  the  allowance  of  food  serve 
any  purpose  whatever,  either  in  recuperating  exhausted 
nature,  or  enabling  her  the  better  to  endure  protracted 
abstinence.  It  is  true  that  Indians  gorge  themselves 
in  seasons  of  plenty,  and  endure  fasting  with  apparent 
impunity;  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  also  that  they 
are  not  called  upon  to  perform  great  and  involuntary 
efforts,  with  the  weight  of  arms  and  accoutrements 


116  APPENDIX. 

upon  them ;  that  they  can  sit,  stand,  or  lie,  according 
as  they  please,  or  sleep  when,  where,  and  as  much  as 
they  like.  Under  such  palliating  circumstances  as 
these,  the  effects  of  fasting  lose  half  their  depressing 
character. 

It  may  be  stated  as  the  result  of  universal  observa- 
tion, that,  to  men  who  are  actively  employed  in  out- 
door pursuits,  the  intervals  of  meals  should  not  exceed 
six  hours.  This  applies  to  the  heaviest  repasts ;  when 
the  meal  is  a  light  one,  and  simply  designed  as  a  re- 
freshment, rather  than  a  re-enforcement  of  the  system, 
the  interval  should  be  much  shorter,  particularly 
where  active  or  violent  exercise  has  followed  upon  it. 
The  rule  in  the  French  army  is  to  take  coffee-soup 
(bread  dipped  in  coffee)  the  first  thing  in  the  morn- 
ing ; — marching  or  drilling  is  then  performed  until 
about  10  or  11  A.  M.,  when  the  breakfast  proper  is 
made ;  at  sundown  the  dinner,  or  supper,  as  it  may  be 
called,  is  prepared,  and  terminates  the  cooking  of  the 
day. 

From  this  it  will  be  perceived  that,  as  a  general 
rule,  the  hardest  duties  of  the  day  are  performed  upon 
a  light  rather  than  a  heavy  meal.  And  this  with  good 
reason,  since,  after  a  heavy  meal,  there  is  always  less 
inclination,  and  even  less  ability  to  undertake  forced 
marches  or  manoeuvres,  than  after  a  light  one.  The 
best  preparation  for  active  exercise  is,  undoubtedly,  that 
which  springs  from  a  stimulating  liquid  mass  requiring 
to  be  digested  before  being  absorbed,  and  thus  remain- 
ing for  some  time  in  the  stomach.  Coffee  combined 
with  bread  fnniishos  tills  i:i  its  m  >st  perfect  form.  By 


APPENDIX.  117 

its  bulk  it  distends — by  its  stimulating  properties  it 
gently  accelerates  the  circulation — by  its  specific  qual- 
ities it  arrests  the  waste  of  tissues — and,  combined 
with  bread,  remains  long  enough  in  the  stomach  to 
constitute  a  meal,  in  the  sense  of  affording  refresh- 
ment. When  coffee  cannot  be  obtainc-d,  bean  or  split- 
pea  porridge,  or  vegetable  soup,  always  adding  a  por- 
tion of  bread,  will  answer  as  a  substitute. 

It  is  particularly  necessary  in  malarious  districts  to 
guard  men  against  the  effects  of  fatigue,  either  in  the 
sun  or  while  fasting.  Therefore,  no  drills,  parades,  or 
violent  exercise  should  be  imposed  on  troops  before 
breakfast,  nor  during  the  heat  of  the  day.  A  ration 
of  bread  and  coffee  should  always  be  partaken  of  early 
in  the  morning,  and  previous  to  any  exercise.  And  it 
is  well  in  this  connection  to  call  attention  to  the  fact 
that  preparations  of  coffee,  of  medium  strength,  act  to 
a  certain  extent  as  prophylactics  against  agues,  diar- 
rhoeas, and  dysentery.  On  the  other  hand,  too  strong 
decoctions  of  coffee  combined  with  oily  food  (fat  pork), 
during  the  summer  months,  undoubtedly  disposes  to 
derangements  of  the  bowels.  Without  the  pork,  and 
when  moderately  strong,  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  its 
beneficial  effects  upon  soldiers.  Sir  George  Ballingall 
says  that  partaking  of  breakfast  before  exercise,  was  tho 
means  resorted  to  in  the  garrison  at  Hull  for  protection 
against  intermittent  fever.  The  success  of  this  course 
soon  proved  its  wisdom,  and  in  the  Island  of  Wal- 
cheren,  in  1809,  the  same  measure  was  resorted  to 
with  equal  good  effects. 

Little  need  be  said  upon   the  score  of  tea,  which, 


113  APPENDIX. 

although  having  analogous  properties  to  coffee,  is, 
from  the  absence  of  the  essential  oil  contained  in  the 
latter,  inferior  as  a  tissue-saver.  Besides  which,  its 
cost  must  always  exclude  it  from  the  dietary  of  an 
army.  As  a  quencher  of  thirst,  cold  tea  is  fully  equal 
to  weak  coffee  of  a  like  temperature ;  and  both,  when 
at  hand,  should  be  used  on  the  march  instead  of  water. 
Spirituous  liquors  do  not  produce  similar  results, 
and  experience  everywhere  conspires  to  show  that 
they  are  deceptive  and  disqualifying  agents,  wasting 
the  strength  rather  than  saving  it.  No  dependence 
should  be  put  upon  them  as  articles  of  food,  which 
they  are  not,  and  their  use  should  always  be  regulated 
by  the  judgment  of  medical  officers  alone.* 

*  It  must  bo  plain  that,  during  bodily  exercise,  when  ani- 
mal heat  is  rapidly  generated,  and  as  rapidly  expended,  the 
additional  stimulus  of  alcohol  in  any  shape  can  have  no  effect 
but  to  hasten  the  period  when  the  expenditure,  outrunning  the 
generation,  must  speedily  leave  the  subject  in  a  state  of  utter 
exhaustion — in  fact,  be  will  be  what  is  called  blown,  long  before 
his  time;  and  the  secret  is  at  once  disclosed  why  the  water- 
drinking  Arab,  with  a  few  dates,  or  a  little  parched  corn  for 
subsistence,  will,  on  every  trial  of  endurance,  immeasurably 
outstrip  the  full-fed  European. 

***** 

During  night-guards  and  night-marches,  after  they  are  over, 
and  outlying  pickets,  it  furnishes  an  excellent  defence  against 
malarious  chills,  and  all  the  ills  of  cold  and  moisture,  provided 
it  be  never  administered  until  the  body  be  at  rest. — Ferguson,  Xotes 
and  Recollections  of  a  Professional  Life,  pp.  78,  79. 


APPENDIX.  119 


Culinary  Formulas  employed  in  the  French 
Army. 


,  NOON-DAY    MEAL. 

No.  1. — Soup  and  boiled  Beef.     (Ration  per  man.) 
i  Ib.  Beef. 

i  oz.  Desiccated  Vegetables, 
i  oz.  Rice, 
i  oz.  Salt. 

Pepper  (1  oz.  per  100  men). 

No.  2. — Beef  and  Vegetables,  same  quantity  as  above, 
li  oz.  White  Bread. 

Fresh  Vegetables. 

No.  3. — Slews. 
4£  oz.  Meat  (beef  or  mutton), 
li  Ib.  Potatoes. 
1  Onion. 
oz.  Salt. 


SaUCC-  Z.  Fat  Pork. 

.  2  drams  (1  teaspoon)  Vinegar. 

No.  4. — Meat  and  Potatoes,  and  Sauce,  as  before. 

\  pt.  Beans. 

Meat  for  stewing  should  be  cut  into  small  bits  be- 
fore placing  it  in  the  pot.  Bones,  cartilage,  and  ten- 
dons should  be  kept  to  make  the  next  day's  soup. 


120  APPENDIX. 

No.  5. — Hotchpot. 
i  Ib.  Fresh  Pork, 
i  oz.  Lard. 
1  Ib.  Potatoes. 

Cabbages,  turnips,  carrots. 

Salt  and  Pepper  as  in  No.  1. 

No.  6. —  Codfish. 
61  oz.  Salt  codfish, 
li  Ib.  Potatoes, 
f  i  oz.  Butter, 
oz.  Flour. 

Sauce.   \  2  dr.  Vinegar, 
i  dr.  Mustard. 

Pepper  as  in  No.  1. 

No.   7. — Same. 
Codfish  and  Sauce  as  above, 
i  pt.  Beans. 

No.   8.— Stockfish. 

6i  oz.  Stockfish,  soaked, 
li  Ib.  Potatoes. 

Sauce,  same  as  No.  6. 
i  oz.  Salt. 

In  preparing  salt  fish  for  the  table,  there  is  always 
danger  of  over-cooking  it.  It  should  never  be  boiled, 
so  to  speak.  Put  it  in  cold  \vater,  change  this  several 
times,  as  it  grows  tepid,  and  when  wanted  for  the 
table,  let  the  water  come  fairly  up  to  the  boiling-point. 
The  fish  will  then  be  done  enough. 


APPENDIX.  121 

AFTERNOON    MEAL. 

No.  9. — Potatoes*  (whole). 

1£  Ib.  Potatoes. 
£  oz.  Lard. 

On  tons. 
£  oz.  Salt. 

Pepper. 
2  dr.  Vinegar. 

No.   10. — Same. 
11  Ib.  Potatoes. 
9£  oz.  Carrots. 
Chervil. 

Sauce.    \  *  OZ<  Lard< 

i  dr.  Mustard. 

Pepper  and  salt,  as  in  No.  9. 

No.  11. — Beans  (dried). 
|  pt.  Beans. 

Sauce,  as  in  No.  10. 

No.  12. — Same. 

•J-  pt.  Beans. 
|  Ib.  Potatoes. 

Sauce,  as  in  No.  10. 

No.  13.— Peas  (dried). 

f  pt.  Peas. 

Sauce,  as  in  No.  10. 

*  On  the  continent,  potatoes  are  generally  served  by  them- 
selves, and  as  a  separate  course. 
11 


122  APPENDIX. 

No.   14. — Same. 
i  pt.  Peas. 
|  Ib.  Potatoes. 

Sauce,  as  in  No.  10. 

No.  15. — Porridges. 

|  pt.  Beans. 

Carrots.    . 

Sauce,  as  in  No.  10,  without  mus- 
tard. 

No.  16. — Same. 

|  pt.  Peas. 

Carrots  and  Sauce,  as  in  No.  15. 

No.  17. — Same. 

|  pt.  Peas. 

Turnips. 
Sauce,  as  above. 

No.  18. — Same. 

li  Ib.  Potatoes. 
Carrots. 
Turnips. 
Sauce,  as  in  No.  10. 

In    all    the  foregoing,    the    vegetables    should   be 
mashed. 

No.   19. — Rice  and  Milk. 

5  oz.  Rice. 

t  pt.  MHk. 


APPENDIX.  123 

£  oz.  Powdered  Sugar. 
^  oz.  Cinnamon, 
i  oz.  Salt. 

No.  20. — Barley  and  Milk. 

5  oz.  Barley. 

Milk,  Sugar  and  Spices  as  in  No.  19. 

No.  21.— Fish  Stew.^ 

5  oz.  Rice, 
li  oz.  Salt  Codfish. 
•£  oz.  Butter. 
Pepper. 

The  codfish,  previous  to  stewing,  should  be  chopped 
fine. 

We  have  elsewhere  spoken  of  the  necessity  of  vary- 
ing the  diet  of  troops,  as  a  measure  indispensable  for 
the  preservation  of  health.  This  truth  is  now  every- 
where recognized,  and  its  practice  has  been  followed 
by  an  increased  exemption  from  attacks  of  scurvy.  -  In 
fact,  when  onions,  potatoes,  and  cabbage  can  be  ob- 
tained, no  excuse  exists  for  the  presence  of  scurvy  in 
any  army.  These,  and  not  medicines,  are  the  true  pre- 
servatives against,  and  the  best  panacea  for  it.  The 
French  troops  in  the  Crimea  preserved  themselves  from 
its  attacks,  when  no  vegetables  could  be  obtained,  by 
resorting  to  the  leaves  and  roots  of  the  dandelion,  of 
which  they  made  a  salad. 

Potatoes  take  the  first  rank  as  an  anti-scorbutic  veg- 
etable, and  should  be  distributed  at  least  twice  a  week 


124  APPENDIX. 

to  all  troops.  When  they  cannot  be  obtained,  onions, 
cabbage  (pickled  or  raw),  in  the  form  of  soup,  with 
sorrel,  dried  apples,  &c.,  should  be  distributed  with 
the  other  rations.  When  practicable,  cocoa  or  choco- 
late might  be  profitably  substituted  for  coffee,  once  or 
twice  a  week.  It  is  more  directly  nourishing,  without 
being  so  stimulating. 

Indian  Meal.  There  are  numerous  preparations  of 
this  cereal  which  could  be  made  use  of  to  vary  the  diet 
of  soldiers.  One  great  recommendation  is  the  facility 
with  which  it  can  be.  cooked.  The  Southern  army 
has  largely  depended  upon  it  for  sustenance,  and,  be- 
ing habituated  to  its  use,  has  not  apparently  suffered 
for  the  want  of  wheat  flour.  Made  up  in  the  form  of 
corn-bread,  hoe-cake,  or  johnny-cake,  it  makes  a  good 
evening  ration  for  soldiers,  but  is  hardly  substantial 
enough  ever  to  take  the  place  of  wheat,  below  which 
it  falls  very  far  in  the  scale  of  nutritiousness.  It  an- 
swers for  variety,  and  in  that  sense  should  be  more 
partaken  of  than  it  is.  The  yellow  variety  is  the  rich- 
est in  nutritive  elements. 

Unbolted  Wheat  flour  is  also  a  most  excellent  pre- 
paration, and  far  more  nutritions  than  that  which  is 
very  fine.  It  is  common  to  laugh  at  this  as  an  in- 
vention of  Dr.  Graham,  and  the  proper  panacea  of 
dyspeptics  alone ;  but  we  should  remember  before  do- 
ing so,  that  the  peasantry  of  Europe,  on  the  continent 
particularly,  live  for  the  most  part  on  coarse  bread, 
much  of  it  black,  and  compounded  of  buckwheat,  rye, 
oats,  and  other  ingredients  which  Americans  would 
not  deem  edible  in  such  shape.  Yet  the  trophical 


APPENDIX.  125 

quality  of  this  bread  is  too  well  proved  to  admit  of 
doubt.  Millions  live  and  thrive  upon  it ;  and  in  proof 
of  tbis  may  be  stated  tbe  curious  fact,  reported  from 
one  of  tbe  hospitals  in  tbe  south  of  France,  of  a  peas- 
ant, who,  being  treated  for  a  fever  with  the  usual  reme- 
dies and  diet,  had  a  most  protracted  convalescence, 
and  was  actually  falling  into  a  marasmus,  despite 
broths,  jellies,  eggs,  milk,  and  brandy,  until  restored 
to  his  ordinary  diet  of  black  bread,  onions,  and  sour 
wine,  when  he  speedily  recovered. 


Alimentary  Table§. 

DIFFERENTIAL    ANALYSIS    OF    ANIMAL    FIBRE. 

THE  following  are  tbe  constituent  elements  of  the 
muscular  fibre  of  various  animals,  as  given  by  Brandes. 

"Water.  Albumen  and  Fibrine.  Gelatine. 

Beef  74  20  6 

Yeal  75  19  6 

Mutton  71  22  7 

Pork  76  19  5 

Chicken  75  20  7 

Beef. 

According  to  Berzelius,  beef  muscle  consists  of — 

Water 77.17 

Muscular  fibre,  nerves,  and  blood-vessels      .          15.80 
Tendinous  tissue        .....  1.90 

Albumen — analogous  to  the  white  of  eggs  .  2.20 


126  APPENDIX. 

Substances  soluble  in  water   and  non-coagula- 

ble  by  heat 1.05 

Substances  soluble  in  alcohol     .         .         .  1.80 

Phosphates  of  lime 0.08 


100.00 
Wheat.— Best  Black  Sea. 

Water 10.00 

Gluten 32.00 

Starch 63.5 

Glucose    .......  7.4 

Dextrine  .......  5.5 

Bran  left  upon  the  sieve    .          .         .          .  1.5 

All  the  cereals  and  leguminous  seeds  increase  in 
weight,  as  well  as  bulk,  during  the  process  of  cook- 
ing; thus — 

100  Ibs.  wheat  flour  make  about  135  Ibs.  bread, 

100    "     Indian  meal     "          "  125  to  144  Ibs. 

100    "     hominy  "          "  333  to  400    " 

100    u     rice  "          "  250  to  300    " 

100    "     peas  "         "  175  to  200    " 

100    "     beans  "         "  175  to  200    " 

Oats. 

Nitrogenous  matter 14.39 

Oily  matter      .          ...         .         .  5.50 

Starch .  60.59 

Woody  fibre    .         .         .         .         .  •       .  7.06 

(Payen.) 


APPENDIX.  127 


Rice. 

Starch 89.15 

Nitrogenous  matter 7.05 

Oily  matter 0.80 

Cellulose 1.10 

Mineral  matter           ...  0.90 


(Payen.) 
Maize. 

Starch 67.55 

Nitrogenous  matter 12.50 

Oily  matter 8.80 

Woody  fibre 5.90 


(Payen.) 
Beans  (dried). 

Starch,  dextrine,  sugar       ....  55.7 

Nitrogenous  matter 25.5 

Oily  matter 2.8 

Cellulose 2.9 

Mineral  matter 3.2 

Hygroscopic  water    .         .         .         .         .  9.9 

(Payen.)  100.00 
Peas  (dried). 

Starch,  dextrine,  sugar       .         .         .         .  58.7 

Nitrogenous  matter  .         .         .         .  23.8 

Cellulose 3.5 

Oily  matter 2.1 

Water                                                               .  9.8 


(Payen.)  100.00 


128  APPENDIX. 

Lentils. 

Starch,  dextrine,  sugar      .          .          .          .  56.0 

Nitrogenous  matter           .         .         .         .  25.2 
Oily  matter,  and  traces  of  aromatic  substances       2.6 

Cellulose 2.4 

Mineral  salts     ......  2.3 

Water  11.5 


(Payen.)  100.00 
Potatoes. 

Water 74. 

Starch 20. 

Nitrogenous  substances.     .         .         .         .  1.6 

Oily  matter;  essential  oil  .         .         .         .  .11 

Saccharine  matter     .....  1.09 

Cellulose 1.64 

Phosphates,  silicates  of  lime,  magnesia,  potassa, 

soda  1.56 


(Payen.}  100.00 


HYGIENE   OF  BARRACKS. 

MAN,  in  singular  contra-distinction  from  other  ani- 
mals, requires  constant  protection  from  the  too  active 
influence  of  the  elements.  In  summer,  excess  of  heat 
prostrates  his  strength ;  in  winter,  excess  of  cold  stupe- 
fies him,  and  disposes  to  local  congestions.  Moisture 
with  heat,  or,  worse  still,  combined  with  cold,  affects 
his  constitution  deleteriously.  All  extremes  are  nox- 


APPENDIX.  129 

ions,  all  excesses  to  be  shunned.  He  needs  habitations, 
therefore,  to  protect  him  from  sun,  dew,  rain,  and  cold. 
But  in  habitations  he  runs  another  risk,  and  perhaps, 
of  the  two,  a  greater  one  than  that  arising  from  heat, 
*  storms,  or  vicissitudes  of  temperature.  He  runs  the 
risk,  when  under  cover,  of  being  poisoned  by  his  own 
emanations.  Rousseau  has  wisely  said  that  the  breath 
of  man  is  fatal  to  his  fellow-being.  This  is  everywhere 
true.  In  all  accumulations  of  human  beings  in  houses, 
there  is  always  an  amount  of  vitiated  air  present,  which, 
although  not  cognizable  to  our  senses,  is  yet  perform- 
ing its  slow,  silent,  and  sure  undermining  of  the  con- 
stitution, even  if  it  do  not  at  once  blow  up  an  inflam- 
mation of  the  blood,  expressing  itself  through  some 
form  of  fever  or  contagious  disease.  Typhus  and  ty- 
phoid fevers,  small-pox  and  erysipelas,  are  the  en- 
demic maladies  of  civilized  communities,  living  in 
conditions  of  more  or  less  agglomeration.  These 
diseases  may  be  communicated  to  savage  tribes, 
but  are  rarely  engendered  among  them.  A  distinguish- 
ed writer  on  the  Laws  of  Health  has  shown  by  un- 
mistakable evidence  the  penalties  which  ever  attend 
the  consumption  of  vitiated  air.* 

In  barracks  it  is  rare  to  find  a  sufficiency  of  cubic 
space  for  the  troops  who  are  housed  in  them.  A  recent 
report  made  to  the  British  Parliament,  by  a  commis- 
sion appointed  to  inspect  barracks,  shows  that  in  165 
establishments  of  that  kind,  existing  in  the  United 

Kingdom,  only  five  were  not  overcrowded.    All  the  re- 

• 

*  Griscom :  "  Uses  and  Abuses  of  Air" 


130  APPENDIX. 

mainder  had  from  25.3  to  90.5  percent,  more  soldiers 
lodged  in  them  than  was  consonant  with  a  due  regard 
to  the  respiratory  wants  of  each  man.  And  this  is  the 
rule,  and  not  the  exception,  with  most  European  na- 
tions, as  we  can  testify  from  personal  observation. 

The  conditions  necessary  for  the  protection  of  health 
in  barracks  are — 

1st.  That  they  shall  be  elevated  at  least  four  feet 
above  the  ground. 

2d.  That  they  shall  not  be  in  proximity  to  any 
marshes — stagnant  ponds — in  small,  narrow  streets — 
near  dumping-grounds  for  offal,  on  the  outskirts  of  a 
city — near  cemeteries — tanneries — slaughter-houses — 
starch-factories — or  in  any  place  where  the  air  is  liable 
to  be  vitiated  by  emanations  from  organic  substances 
undergoing  decomposition. 

3d.  They  should  have  a  sufficient  exposure  to  sun- 
light, and  a  free  circulation  of  air  about  them,  so  as 
to  render  humidity  in-doors  impossible.  Therefore 
the  best  position  for  them  is  at  a  distance  from  other 
dwellings,  and  in  large  open  squares. 

4th.  The  building,  as  a  general  rule,  should  face  the 
north-east  and  south-west — have  long  corridors  divid- 
ing it  entirely,  or  running  across,  with  doors  or  win- 
dows at  each  extremity. 

5th.  It  should  not  have  more  than  two  stories.  The 
lower  to  be  occupied  as  officers'  mess-rooms,  guard- 
rooms, school-rooms,  reading-room,  &c.,  and  the  upper 
story  exclusively  as  dormitories. 

6th.  The  kitchen  should  be  in  a  one-story  wing. 

7th.  Not  more  than    14  men  should   occupy  one 


APPENDIX.  131 

room.  And  on  the  door  of  this  should  be  inscribed 
its  cubic  contents  of  air,  and  the  number  of  men  who 
should  be  lodged  in  it.  The  least  amount  of  space 
allowed  each  man  should  be  400  cubic  feet,  with  pro- 
visions for  supplying  20  cubic  feet  of  fresh  air  per 
minute  to  every  lodger. 

8th.  Windows  should  face  doors,  and  at  night,  in 
all  weathers,  should  be  let  down  at  least  4  inches  from 
the  top,  and  raised  at  least  two  inches  from  the  bottom. 
It  would  be  better  to  have  ventilators  opening  from 
the  outside  through  the  mop-board,  and  thus  bringing 
a  supply  of  fresh  air  directly  into  the  lower  part  of 
the  room,  so  as  to  avoid  the  unpleasant  draught  which 
might  otherwise  blow  directly  on  men's  beds,  from 
the  lower  part  of  the  window.  But  letting  down  the 
upper  part  of  the  window  is  not  sufficient  to  ventilate 
a  room,  unless  the  door  be  kept  open,  and  fresh  air 
admitted  from  a  window  in  the  hall.  Therefore  all 
sleeping-room  doors,  in  barracks,  should  be  kept  open 
during  the  night,  and  the  hall-windows  be  opened.  In 
this  way  no  lack  of  fresh  air  can  ever  exist,  and  men 
cannot  complain  of  draughts  upon  their  beds  from  the 
lower  parts  of  windows  being  opened. 

9th.  Once  a  week,  in  fair  weather,  the  floors  should 
be  thoroughly  scrubbed.  This  must  be  done  early  in 
the  morning,  so  as  to  give  them  time  to  dry  before 
night.  Twice  a  year  the  ceilings  and  walls  should  be 
whitewashed. 

10th.  No  smoking  or  chewing  should  be  allowed  in 
dormitories. 


132  APPENDIX. 

llth.  Every  man   should  occupy  a  separate  bed. 
This  should  consist  of  the  following  articles,  viz  : 
Iron  bedstead. 

Mattress  of  straw  or  corn-husks — quilted. 
2  Cotton  sheets. 
2  Blankets.* 
1  Pillow. 

12th.  Urinals.  The  best  urinals  or  night-buckets 
for  barracks  are  those  made  of  tarred-canvas.  They 
should  be  cleansed  every  morning  by  first  scrubbing 
them  with  a  broom,  afterwards  thoroughly  rinsing 
them,  and  then  placing  in  them  the  following  solu- 
tion. 

Take  2i  quarts  water,  in  which  dissolve  2  handfuls 
of  soot;  thoroughly  commingle  them,  and  pour  into 
the  bucket ;  let  it  remain  in  it  till  used. 

Latrines.  These  buildings  should  be  placed  at  some 
distance  from  the  barracks,  and  be  made  either  direct- 
ly over,  or  in  some  way  to  communicate  with,  a  stream 
of  running  water.  They  should  be  built  wide  enough, 
and  the  seats  so  disposed  that  no  fecal  matter  can  at- 
tach itself,  in  falling,  to  the  walls.  A  part  for  urinating 
should  be  arranged,  independent  of  the  other  portions 
of  the  building ;  and  no  other  kind  of  offal  must  be 
thrown  into  them.  Twice  a  week,  at  least,  ashes,  in  so- 
lution, or  chloride  of  lime,  or  copperas  dissolved  in  wa- 
ter (1  Ib.  to  a  bucketful),  should  be  thrown  down  for  the 

*  This  is  exclusive  of  the  "  regulation  "  or  field  blanket  which 
the  soldier  has  given  him  on  enlisting,  and  which  he  can  place 
upon  his  bed,  if  needful. 


APPENDIX.  133 

purpose  of  disinfection.     Each  compartment   should 
have  a  door,  and  a  window,  or  ventilating  chimney. 


CLOTHING. 

THERE  is  little  to  add  on  the  score  of  clothing  to 
what  has  been  already  said.  It  is  well  demonstrated 
that  looseness  and  warmth  are  mutually  related,  and 
that  beauty  and  grace  of  outline,  as  well  as  facility  of 
motion,  belong  to  loose  garments.  These  are  the 
qualities  which  have  rendered  the  Zouave  uniform  so 
captivating,  although,  in  point  of  fact,  it  is  far  inferior 
as  a  serviceable  costume  to  the  dress  of  the  Chasseur 
de  Vincennes,  which  is  admitted  to  combine  all  the 
good  points  of  color,  looseness,  grace,  and  durability 
that  can  possibly  be  brought  together. 

For  the  infantry  the  shoe  and  gaiter  are  the  proper 
foot-covering ;  for  the  cavalry,  the  boot  is  indispensa- 
ble. As  between  the  linen  and  the  leather  gaiter, 
authorities,  after  long  discussion,  have  finally  settled 
upon  the  latter  as  deserving  preference.  It  is  more 
durable,  does  not  soil  so  readily,  sheds  water,  and  may 
be  kept  soft  by  applying  oil  or  tallow.* 

*  The  following  forms  an  excellent  water-proof  paste,  which 
does  not  prevent  shoes  from  being  blacked  : 

Take  of  Tallow,  6  oz. 

Wax,  ) 

Linseed  Oil.  >  2  oz.  of  each. 

Venice  Turpentine,  ) 
Melt  together,  and  apply  while  slightly  warm. 

12 


134:  APPENDIX. 

The  felt  hat  is  a  much  better  head-covering  for  all 
weathers  than  the  cloth  cap.  In  rainy  weather  the 
brim  may  be  turned  down  so  as  to  protect  the  neck; 
the  same  may  be  done  in  exposure  to  the  sun.  Be- 
sides which,  the  height  of  the  crown  admits  of  some 
ventilation — a  thing  utterly  impossible  with  the  tight- 
fitting  cloth  cap. 

The  flannel  bandage  is  an  article  of  great  value  in 
a  sanitary  point  of  view.  It  should  be  carried  for  use 
at  night,  when  on  guard  in  hot  climates,  as  it  is  parti- 
cularly then  that  any  check  of  perspiration  tends  to 
cause  derangement  of  the- bowels.  But  at  ordinary 
times,  and  when  the  soldier  already  wears  a  flan- 
nel shirt,  and  is  not  otherwise  exposed  to  deleteri- 
ous influences,  its  use  during  the  day,  at  least,  may  be 
dispensed  with.  Foreign  troops  do  not  usually  wear 
woollen  shirts,  hence  the  value  to  them  of  the  flannel 
bandage,  which,  in  continental  countries,  is  considered 
a  necessary  part  of  the  soldier's  equipment.  But  the 
bandage  might  very  profitably  be  worn  over  the  pant- 
aloons, and  as  a  support  to  both  the  bowels  and  loins. 
In  that  case  it  might  be  made  long,  in  the  form  of  a 
scarf,  and  of  any  color  which  might  be  selected.  It 
would  then  subserve  the  triple  purpose  of  warmth, 
support,  and  ornament. 

.    .* 


APPENDIX.  135 


CAMPING. 

THE  more  fresh  air  that  can  be  obtained  in  and 
about  tents,  the  better  will  the  health  of  the  camp  be. 
Therefore,  the  floor  of  tents  never  should  be  sunk  be- 
neath the  level  of  the  ground  by  digging  out  the  earth, 
nor  should  earth  be  heaped  around  and  outside  of  them. 
Experience  everywhere  shows  this  to  be  a  prolific 
source  of  disease,  by  the  impossibility  of  thorough 
ventilation  which  it  occasions.  Stones  may  be  used 
to  confine  the  edges  of  the  tent,  and  prevent  the  wind 
from  overturning  it ;  but  nothing  more  compact  than 
this  should  be  allowed.  Around  each  tent,  and  at  a 
distance  of  six  inches  from  it,  a  small  trench  must  be 
dug,  to  carry  off  the  rain-water :  this  trench  should  be 
p'aved  with  pebbles,  and  communicate  with  the  drains 
which  are  made  on  either  side  of  the  camp-streets. 

No  one  should  be  allowed  to  urinate  on  the  ground 

o 

in  the  vicinity  of  tents,  nor  to  throw  offal  of  any  kind 
into  the  drains. 

The  streets  of  the  camp  must  be  swept  daily  in  fair 
weather,  and  the  tents  struck  twice  a  week,  so  that  the 
ground6  beneath  can  be  thoroughly  sunned  and  dried. 

Camping-grounds  should  be  changed  at  least  once 
every  three  months,  as  the  soil  otherwise  becomes  so 
thoroughly  saturated  with  organic  emanations  as  to 
endanger  health.  It  is  often  noticed  that  new  regiments 
occupy  ing  old  camping-grounds  have  large  accessions 


136  APPENDIX. 

to  tbeir  sick-list  from  no  other  apparent  cause  than 
this.  Long  after  a  camp  has  been  broken  up,  a  faint, 
sickly  animal  smell  reveals  the  place  of  its  site,  and 
shows  the  continuing  presence  of  deleterious  emana- 
tions from  the  soiL 

All  offal  from  kitchen  and  shambles,  and  picketing 
grounds  for  animals,  should  be  daily  buried,  or  burnt. 


SHELTER-TENTS  AND  CLOAKS. 


TENTS. 

THE  shelter-tent  is  a  French  invention,  first  brouglit 
into  use  in  Africa,  and  was  designed,  through  its  very 
portable  character,  to  relieve  the  army  of  some  of  its 
transportation,  by  enabling  the  soldier  to  carry  with 
him  this  means  of  protection.  As  originally  designed, 
it  consisted  of  a  piece  of  canvas  almost  square,  of 
about  1m.  72c.  (5  ft.  5  in.)  by  1m.  60c.  (5  ft.),  furnished 
with  buttons  and  button-holes,  a  tent-pole  (46  in.),  a 
piece  of  stretching-rope  eight  feet  long,  three  pickets, 
and  two  picket-ropes  eighteen  inches  long. 

By  uniting  their  squares  of  canvas,  two  men  could 
erect  a  small  tent  which  completely  covered  them,  al- 
though leaving  both  ends  open.  A  third  square  folded 
in  half  was  then  thought  of  to  close  one  of  the  ends, 
thus  compelling  three  men  to  lodge  beneath  its  shelter ; 
the  remaining  end,  in  order  to  be  closed,  required  a 
fourth  square  of  canvas,  and  a  fourth  lodger.  But  in- 
asmuch as  the  superficial  area  of  the  tent  did  not  ad- 


APPENDIX.  137 

in  it  of  this,  it  was  found  most  practicable  to  unite 
two  tents  lengthwise  into  one,  as  in  the  .following  cut, 
which  shoulcUftot  only  be  twice  as  large,  but  closed  at 
both  ends,  and  accommodate  six  men,  each  one  fur- 
nishing a  square  of  canvas.  This  is  the  style  of  lodg- 
ing heretofore  adopted  for  field  service  by  the  French 
army. 


There  are  some  inconveniences  connected  with  the 
old  style  of  form  and  fastenings,  which  are  giving 
place  to  improvements  of  a  sterling  character.  They 
consist  of  the  following  : 

Instead  of  buttons,  easily  torn  off  in  the  hurry  of 
pitching  or  striking  tents,  eyelet-holes  are  substituted, 
with  a  cord  reeving  through  them.  They  are  always 
in  order,  do  not  tear,  nor  wear  any  thing  but  the  rope, 
and  allow  of  putting  the  tent  together  in  much  less 
time  than  with  buttons.  The  edges  of  the  canvas 
should  be  bound  with  an  extra  strip  of  the  same  ma- 
terial, reaching  to  the  eyelet-hole. 

Again,  the  canvas,  instead  of  being  made  in  the 
form  of  a  rectangle,  is  made  in  that  of  a  square,  and 
the  eyelets  being  always  equidistant,  the  pieces  of 
cloth  tit  closely  on  any  and  every  side,  and  the  rope 
reeves  through  without  leaving  any  large  interstices. 
12*  ' 


138  APPENDIX. 

The  proper  dimension  for  one  section  of  a  shelter- 
tent  is  about  six  feet  square.*  This,  with  three  pickets, 
is  the  burden  of  each  man,  while  the  t»vo  tent-poles 
(four  feet  long)  and  the  stretching-rope  (some  twenty 
feet)  can  be  divided  daily  by  lot  among  the  occupants 
of  the  tent,  or  carried  with  the  baggage. 

The  shelter-tent  may  be  made  extremely  useful  on 
the  battle-field,  as  a  means  for  transporting  the  wound- 
ed ;  folded  double,  with  the  tent-poles  for  handles,  it 
makes  a  good  sedan-litter  for  such  of  the  wounded  as 
can  sit  up ;  used  in  its  whole  length,  the  wounded  may 
be  carried  supine,  as  in  a  hammock 


SHELTEB-CLOAKS. 

A  very  good  shelter-cloak  has  been  proposed  by  Dr. 
L.  He  ure  ux.  of  the  Belgian  Army,  which  is  thus  made. 

O  •/   ' 

A  rectangular  piece  of  rubber-cloth,  64-  feet  long  and 
3  feet  4  inches  wide,  is  pierced  on  the  long  sides  with 
eyelet-holes  ;  by  attaching  a  cord  to  one  of  the  corners, 
reeving  it  through  the  eyelets,  and  drawing  the  ends 
together,  the  cloak  may  be  so  shaped  as  to  cover  the 
soldier's  shoulders  and  equipments  completely  while 
marching  in  a  rain  storm.  When  it  is  desired  to 
transform  the  cloak  into  a  tent,  it  suffices  to  attach 
one  of  the  narrow  sides  to  the  earth,  and  to  raise  the 

*  The  stature  pf  the  French  Army  is  below  that  of  our  own, 
hence  the  necessity  tor  making  our  shelter-tent  squares  larger 
than  theirs. 


APPENDIX.  139 

other  on  two  sticks.  An  area  equal  to  the  hypothe- 
nuse  of  the  triangle  thus  formed  will  be  covered.  The 
knapsack,  for  a  pillow,  is  placed  at  the  apex  of  the 
triangle,  and  the  soldier's  feet  extend  towards  the  open 
side. 

By  uniting  several  of  these  cloaks  together,  in  the 
form  of  a  polygon,  a  very  tolerable  shelter  for  three 
or  four  men  can  be  made.  A  fire  can  be  lighted  in 
the  centre,  the  top  being  open, — a  ditch  dug  around 
the  outside,  and  the  tent  is  then  complete.  The  men 
sleep,  as  before  said,  with  the  feet  towards  the  centre 
and  the  fire. 

The  following  advantages  are  claimed  for  this  tent : 

It  can  be  promptly  set  np  or  taken  down. 

It  can  be  used  under  all  circumstances,  particu- 
larly in  bivouacking,  since  the  soldier  carries  it  with 
him. 

The  opening  can  always  be  turned  from  the  wind  ; 
sparks  and  dangers  of  conflagration  are  thus  avoided, 
and  the  men  are  better  sheltered  in  a  driving,  slant- 
wise rain. 

It  is,  from  its  dark  color,  easily  concealed  from 
the  enemy,  being  mistaken  at  a  distance  for  rocks, 
earth,  <fec.  • 

The  camp-fires  are  concealed  by  it  from  obser- 
vation during  the  night. 

It  may  be  made  larger  or  smaller,  to  accommo- 
date one  or  four  men., 

On  battle-fields  it  can  be  used  as  a  temporary  hos- 
pital tent  for  the  wounded,  and  thus  protect  them 
from  sun,  wind,  dust,  or  rain. 


192  BROADWAY,  NEW  YORK. 


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IV.  Military  Mining. 

V.  Construction  of  Batteries. 

By  Captain  J.  C.  DUANE,  Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  A. 
vol.  12mo,  half  morocco,  with  plates.     $2. 

tk  I  have  carefully  examined  Capt.  J.  C.  Duane's  '  Manual  for  En- 
pineer  Troops,'  and  do  not  hesitate  to  pronounce  it  the  very  best 
work  on  the  subject  of  which  it  treats.11 

H.  W.  HALLECK,  Major-General,  U.  S.  A. 
"A  work  of  this  kind  has  been  much  needed  in  our  military  lit- 
erature.    For  the  army's  sake,  I  hope  the  book  will  have  a  wide 
circulation  among  its  officers.11 

G-.  B.  McCLELLAN,  Major- General,  V.  £  A. 


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